.OH-'  ENGINES. 


UC-NRLF 


REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived  ,190     . 

Accession  No.      ^2934    m   Class. No. .>'.:„ 


; 


THE 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

OF 

OIL  ENGINES 

WITH    FULL    DIRECTIONS    FOR 

ERECTING,  TESTING,  INSTALLING 
RUNNING  AND  REPAIRING 

INCLUDING  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH 
KEROSENE  OIL  ENGINES 

By  A.  H.  GOLDINGHAM,  M.E. 


Fully  Illustrated 


OF  THB 

I  UNIVERSITY 


NEW    YORK  : 
SPON  &  CHAMBERLAIN,  12  CORTLANDT  ST. 

LONDON  : 

E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  LTD.,  125  STRAND 
1900" 


Entered  According  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  Year  1900,  by 

ARTHUR  HUGH  GOLDINGHAM 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  BURR  PRINTING  HOUSE,  FRANKFORT  AND  JACOB  8T8. ,  N.  Y. ,  U.  6.  A. 


PREFACE 


THIS  work  has  been  written  with  the  intention  of 
supplying  practical  information  regarding  the  kero- 
sene or  oil  engine,  and  in  response  to  frequent  re- 
quests received  by  the  writer  to  recommend  such  a 
book. 

Whilst  many  works  have  been  published  on  the 
subject  of  gas  engines,  some  of  which  refer  to  or 
describe  the  working  of  the  oil  engine,  no  other  book, 
it  is  believed,  is  devoted  entirely  to  the  oil  engine 
in  detail. 

The  work,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  useful  to  the 
draughtsman,  the  engine  attendant,  as  well  as  to  those 
who  own  or  are  about  to  install  Oil  Engines. 

The  classification  of  vaporizers  has  been  adhered 
to  as  made  some  few  years  ago,  and  a  representative 
engine  with  each  type  is  described. 

The  matter  on  design  and  construction  is  founded 
on  practical  experience,  the  formulae,  it  is  believed, 
being  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern  practice. 

Chapter  III.  on  Testing  "is  based  on  the  writer's 
personal  experience  in  the  testing-room. 


iv  PREFACE. 

The  writer  is  particularly  indebted  to  Mr.  George 
Richmond  for  many  valuable  suggestions,  and  also  for 
reading  the  proof-sheets,  and  he  wishes  to  acknowledge 
assistance  from  many  firms,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  Ingersoll  Sargeant  Drill  Company  for 
Table  III.,  Mr.  Frank  Richards  for  Table  II.,  The 
De  La  Vergne  Company  for  Table  IV.,  London 
Engineer,  Tables  V.  and  VI.  Table  I.  is  partly  taken 
from  Mr.  William  Norris's  book  on  the  Gas  Engine, 
and  Tables  VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  and  X.,  at  the  end  of  the 
book,  relating  to  different  oils,  are  taken  (with  per- 
mission) from  Mr.  Boverton  Redwood's  valuable 
work  on  Petroleum.  And  to  the  Engineering  News 
for  permission  to  use  Figs.  44^  and  44^.  The  Crosby 
Steam  Gauge  Company  have  also  supplied  informa- 
tion relating  to  the  indicator  and  planimeter. 

A.    H.    GOLDINGHAM. 

NEW  YORK,  November  i,  1900. 


CONTENTS. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY.  PAGE 

Historical— Classification  of  Oil  Engines— Various 
Vaporizers— Different  'Igniting  and  Spraying  De- 
vices—The Different  Cycles  of  Valve  Movements  1-19 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON   DESIGNING   OIL  ENGINES. 

Simplicity  in  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Parts 
—Comparison  of  Oil  and  Gas  Engines— Cyl- 
inders, Different  Types— Cylinder  Clearance— 
Crank-shaft,  Dimensions  and  Formulae— Balanc- 
ing of  Crank-shafts  Described — Connecting-rods, 
Strengths,  etc.— Piston,  Piston-rings— Piston 
speed — Fly-wheels,  Formula  for — Air  and  Ex- 
haust Cams — Cylinder  Lubricators — Valves  and 
Valve-boxes— Velocity  of  Air  through  Valves— 
Crank-shaft  Bearings — Proportions  of  Engine 
Frame — Crank-pin  Dimensions — Valve  Mechan- 
isms, Gearing  and  Levers — Governing  Devices — 
Exhaust  Bends — Oil-supply  Pump — Oil-tank  and 
Filter — Comparison  of  Horizontal  and  Vertical 
Type  Engines,  with  Advantages  of  Each — Two- 
cylinder  Engines  Discussed — Assembling  of  Oil- 
engines— Scraping  in  Bearings — Fitting  of  Piston 
and  Piston-rings — Fitting  Connecting-rod  Bear- 
ings— Fitting  Air  and  Exhaust  Valves — Test- 
ing Water-jackets — Fly-wheel  Keys — Oil-supply 
Pipes — Cylinder  Made  in.  Two  or  More  Parts,  . .  20-58 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

TESTING   ENGINES. 

PAGE 

Object  of  Testing — Comparison  with  Steam-engines — 
Different  Records  to  be  Taken — Diagram  for  set- 
ting Valves— Preparing  for  Test— Heating  of  Va- 
porizer— Starting — Difficulties  of  Starting — Com- 
pression, How  to  Test— Leakage  of  Valves  and 
Cylinder — Lubrication  of  Piston  and  Bearings — 
Easing  Piston — Synonymous  Terms  for  Power  De- 
veloped— Indicated  Horse-power — Brake,  Horse- 
power— Indicator  Fully  Described — Reducing 
Motions — Planimeters — Indicator-cards  described 
in  Detail  and  Analyzed — Defects  as  Shown  by 
Indicator — How  to  Remedy  Same — Early  and 
Late  Ignition,  How  to  Alter — The  Compression 
and  Expansion  Lines — Choked  Exhaust — Mean 
Effective  Pressure,  How  to  Increase — Back  Pres- 
sure of  Exhaust — Tachometers — Fuel-consump- 
tion Test  Fully  Described — Mechanical  Efficiency 
—Thermal  Efficiency — Table  of  Disposition  of 
Heat — Valve  Diagram — Exhaust  Gases — Complete 
and  Incomplete  Combustion — Testing  the  Flash- 
point of  Kerosene — Viscosometer, 59-95 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COOLING   WATER-TANKS    AND   OTHER   DETAILS. 

Water  Connections — Capacity  of  Tanks  Required — 
Gravitation  System  of  Circulation — Water-pumps 
— Connection  to  City  Water  Main — Temperature 
of  Outlet  Water — Emptying  Pipes  in  Frosty 
Weather— Salt  Water— Exhaust  Silencers— Brick 
Pit,  How  to  Construct — Exhaust-Gas  Deodorizer, 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGE 

How  to  Connect — Connecting  Circulating  Water 
to  Exhaust-pipe — Self-starters,  Why  Necessary 
— Utilizing  Waste  Heat  of  Exhaust  Gases  and  of 
Cooling  Water,  Different  Methods — Exhaust 
Temperature, 96-110 


CHAPTER  V. 

OIL  ENGINES    DRIVING   DYNAMOS. 

Isolated  Plants — Advantages  of  Oil  Engines  as  Com- 
pared with  Gas  and  Steam  Engines — Installation 
of  Plant — Foundation,  How  to  Build,  Ingredients 
— Correct  Location  of  Engine  and  Dynamo — • 
Belts — Balance-wheel  on  Armature  Shaft — Power 
Required  for  Incandescent  and  Arc  Lamps — 
Losses  of  Power  by  Belt  and  Otherwise — Regu- 
lation of  Engine  Required  for  Electric  Lighting — 
Direct-connected  Plants,  Advantages  of  Same — 
Variations  in  Incandescent  Lights,  Causes,  How 
to  Remedy — Silencing  Air-suction,  ..  ..  ..  111-122 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS,  WATER-PUMPS,  ETC. 

Direct-connected  and  Geared  Air-compressing  Outfits, 
with  Dimensions  and  Pressures  Obtained — Calcu- 
lations of  Horse-power  Required — Tables  of  Pres- 
sures and  Other  Data — Efficiencies  at  Different 
Altitudes — Pumping  Outfits  Described  in  Detail, 
with  Dimensions — How  to  Calculate  Horse-power 
Required — Oil  Engines  ^Driving  Ice  and  Refrig- 
erating Machines,  Calculations  of  Power  Required 
— Friction-clutches,  . .  123-138 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS   FOR  RUNNING  OIL  ENGINES. 

PAGE 

General  Instructions  and  Remarks — Cylinder  Lubri- 
cating Oil — Instructions  in  Detail  as  to  Running 
Hornsby-Akroyd  Type,  the  Crossley  Type,  the 
Campbell  Type,  and  the  Priestman  Type  of  Oil 
Engine — General  -Remarks — Regulation  of  Speed 
— How  to  Reverse  Direction  of  Running  of  En- 
gine, with  Diagrams  of  Valve  Settings,  . .  . .  139-156 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

REPAIRS. 

Drawing  Piston — Taking  Off  Piston-ring — Grinding 
in  of  Valves — Adjustment  of  Crank-shaft  and 
Connecting-rod  Bearings — How  to  Fit  New 
Piston-ring  to  Cylinder — Fitting  New  Skew  and 
Spur  Gear — Renewing  Governor  Parts,  . .  . .  157-160 


CHAPTER  IX. 

VARIOUS  ENGINES   DESCRIBED. 

General  Description,  with  Illustrations  of  Different 
American  and  English  Oil  Engines — Method  of 
Working— Sectional  Cuts— The  Crossley— The 
Cundall— The  Campbell— The  Priestman— The 
Mietz  and  Weiss— The  Hornsby-Akroyd— The 
Diesel — Portable  Oil  Engines  Described  and 
Illustrated,  161-183 


TABLES. 


PAGE 

I.     Sizes  of  Crank-shafts,        27 

II.    Various  Air  Pressures, 126-127 

III.  Efficiencies   of   Air    Compressors   at   Different 

Altitudes,  . . 129 

IV.  Mean  Pressure  of  Diagram  of  Gas  (Ammonia) 

Compressor,       135 

'  J  Tests  of  Various  Oil  Engines  Made  in  Edin- 

VL  (         burgh, 184-185 

VII.    Calorific    Power    of    Various    Descriptions    of 

Petroleum,   etc.,  186 

VIII.    Composition,  Physical  Properties,  etc.,  of  Vari- 
ous Descriptions  of  Petroleum,       . .         . .          187 

IX.    Oil  Fuel,         .•.         ..         188 

X.    Calorific  Power  of  Crude  Petroleum,  . .         . .          188 

Index, 189-196 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XI 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Abel  Oil-tester, 91 

American-Thompson  Indicator,           . .         . .         . .         . .  65 

Apparatus  for  Open  Fire  Test, 91 

Automatic  Air  Inlet- Valve,       ..         ..         ..         ..         ..'41 

Beau  de  Rochas  Cycle,  Diagram, 16 

Campbell  Diagrams,         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  167 

Campbell  Sprayer,            ..         ..         ..         5 

Campbell  Type  Engine,  . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  166 

Cams,  Air  and  Exhaust,  . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  37 

Connecting-rod, 31 

Connecting-rod  Bearings,           . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  159 

Connecting-rod,   Phosphor-bronze,      . .         . .         . .         . .  32 

Crank-shaft  Bearing, 54 

Crank-shafts,  Balanced, 28 

Crank-shafts,  Slab  Type,           *.         . .  26 

Crosby  Indicator, 68 

Crossley  Diagrams,          163 

Crossley  Sprayer, 4 

Crossley  Type  Engine, 162 

Cundall   Type  Engine,    . .         . .         164 

Cylinder,      . .         . .         . .         . .         . .       ...         . .         . .  22 

Cylinder, 24 

Diagram  of  Valve-settings,        . .         60 

Diagrams,  Reversing  Engine  and  Cams,       . .         . .         . .  155 

Diesel  Motor,         178 

Diesel  Motor,  Indicator  Diagram,      . .         . .         . .         . .  180 


Xll  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Direct-connected  Air-compressing  Plant, 124 

Dynamo  Fly-wheel,          116 

Electric  Spark  Igniter, 6 

Engine  and  Dynamo,  Belt-driven,      ..         ..         ..         ..112 

Engine  and  Refrigerating  Machine, 132 

Engine  Connected  to  Water-pump, 130 

Engine  Connected  to  Water-pump,  Small  Type,     . .         . .  131 
Engine  foundation,           ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..114 

Exhaust  Silencing  Pit, 101 

Exhaust   Washing   Device,        . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  102 

Fly-wheel, 36 

Friction-clutch, 138 

Geared  Air-Compressing  Plant,           128 

Governor,    Centrifugal   Type,    . .         . .         . .         . .  45 

Governor,  Hit-and-miss  Type, 47 

Hill  Self-recording  Speed  Counter, 85 

Heating  Lamp, 142 

Heating  Water-pipe  Arrangement,     . .         . .         . .         . .  108 

Heating  Water-pipe  Arrangement, *         . .  109 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Engine  and  Dynamo,  Direct-connected,  118 

Hornsby-Akroyd   Horizontal   Type, 174 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Sprayer,         . .         . .         . .         . .  10 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Vaporizer, 3 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Vertical   Type,        . .         . .         . .         . .  175 

Indicator  Cock, 66 

Indicator   Diagram,          . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  76 

Indicator   Diagram,          . .         . .  77 

Indicator  Diagram,          79 

Indicator   Diagram,          80 

Indicator   Diagram,          . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  82 

Indicator  Diagram,  Light  Spring,       . .         . .         . .         . .  89 

Indicator  Diagram,  Varying  Pressures,       . .         . .         . .  46 

Indicator  Diagrams,  Hornsby-Akroyd,         176 

Indicator,  Reducing  Motion,     . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  67 

Mietz  and  Weiss,  Indicator  Diagram,            172 

Mietz  and  Weiss  Engine  and  Dynamo,  Direct-connected,  120 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  Xlll 

PAGE 

Mietz  and  Weiss  Type  Engine,  . .                    I71 

Oil   Engine  with  Testing  Apparatus  Applied,       . .         . .  62 

Oil-filter,      ......  "49 

Oil-pump,     .  .         . .         . .         . .                     •  •                     •  •  J44 

Oil-supply    Pipe,    .  .          .  .          . .          .  .                                 . .  48 

Piston-ring, •  •  35 

Piston,   Section  of,           . .         . .                     • '                     •  •  34 

Piston  with  Piston-rings,           . .                                            . .  56 

Planimeters,            •  •  72 

Planimeters  in  Position,  . .         . .                                . .         •  •  74 

Portable  Oil  Engine, 182 

Priestman   Engine,            •  •  169 

Priestman  Indicator  Diagrams,           170 

Priestman  Sprayer, . .  14 

Priestman  Vaporizer, 13 

Self-starter,             106 

Silencing  Device,  . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  104 

Spur-gearing,          44 

Starting  Cam,        143 

Tachometer,            . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  84 

Tachometer,  portable, 85 

Testing    Oil-pump,           147 

Two-cycle  Plan, 17 

Two-cylinder   Engine, 52 

Valve-box, 39 

Valve-closing  Springs, 40 

Valve-levers,           146 

Valve  Mechanism,           '  . .         . .  44 

Valves,  Air  and  Exhaust,          42 

Viscosometer,         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  94 

Water-circulating  Pump,            98 

Water-cooling   Tank   and    Connections,        97 

Worm  Gear,          43 


CHAPTER    I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

THE  internal  combustion  engines  which  are  treated 
of  in  this  work  are  those  using  heavy  kerosene  as  fuel, 
otherwise  called  petroleum,  coal  oil  or  Scotch  paraffin, 
and  similar  oils  having  specific  gravity  varying  from 
.78  to  .85  with  flashing  point  of  75°  to  300°  Fahr. 

The  use  of  heavy  oil  for  producing  power  in  internal 
combustion  engines  appears  to  have  received  the  at- 
tention of  inventors  as  early  as  1790,  though  no  satis- 
factory practical  kerosene  or  petroleum  engine  is  re- 
corded as  having  been  made  until  about  thirty  years 
ago.  Those  engines  using  the  lighter  grade  fuels,  such 
as  benzine,  or  gasoline,  or  naphtha,  were  commonly 
used  previous  to  the  invention  of  the  kerosene-oil 
engine.  The  problem  of  efficiently  producing  a  vapor 
and  suitable  explosive  mixture  of  air  with  such  vapor 
from  these  light  oils  was  comparatively  a  very  simple 
matter.  Such  engines  are  gas  engines  proper,  with 
simply  some  form  of  carburetter  added,  but  they  can 
use  only  gasoline  or  naphtha  as  fuel.  These  are  not 
treated  of  in  this  book,  only  oil  engines  proper  being 


2  OIL   ENGINES. 

described  and  discussed.  The  term  oil  engine  refers  to 
an  internal  combustion  engine  so  designed  as  to  effec- 
tively deal  with  and  convert  into  power  crude  petro- 
leum just  as  it  is  pumped  from  the  earth,  or  any  of  the 
other  fuels  already  named,  without  the  aid  of  any  out- 
side agency  or  separate  apparatus. 

The  production  of  a  satisfactory  device  for  properly 
vaporizing  the  heavier  oils  at  first  offered  a  problem 
which  it  was  thought  difficult  to  solve,  and  remained 
so  for  many  years  before  the  efficient  vaporizing  kero- 
sene engines  now  in  use  were  constructed. 

IGNITERS. — The  first  oil  engines  built  had  their 
charge  of  vaporized  oil  and  air  ignited  by  means  of 
the  flame  igniter,  which  has,  however,  now  entirely 
given  place  to  the  four  following  means  of  ignition : 

(a)  Hot  surface  ignition,  aided  by  compression. 

(b)  Hot  tube. 

(c)  Electric  igniter. 

(d)  High  compression  only. 

The  first-named  type  of  igniter  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  i. 
In  this  instance  the  heated  walls  of  the  vaporizer  act 
as  the  igniter,  aided  by  the  heat  generated  during  com- 
pression of  the  gases.  The  chamber  being  first  heated, 
afterward  the  proper  temperature  is  maintained  by  the 
heat  caused  by  the  internal  combustion  of  the  gases. 
The  best-known  vaporizer  and  igniter  of  this  type  is 
that  in  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  Oil  Engine.  Various 
other  somewhat  similar  devices  in  which  sufficient  heat 
is  maintained  to  cause  ignition  automatically  are  also 
now  being  made. 

The  second  type,  that  of  the  hot  tube,  is  shown  in 


INTRODUCTORY.  3 

Fig.  2  and  Fig.  3.    This  igniter  consists  of  a  porcelain, 


nickel  or  wronght-iron  tube,  which  is  maintained  at  red 
heat  by  external  heating  lamp,  and  is  placed  in  the  end 


INTRODUCTORY. 


of  the  combustion  chamber  space,  being  always  open 
to  the  cylinder,  as  shown. 

THE  ELECTRICAL  IGNITER  is  made  in  various  forms; 


AIR  INLET 


TO  CYLINDER 


OIL  SUPPLY 


FIG.  3. 

that  illustrated  in  Fig.  4  is  of  the  "  jump-spark"  type. 
The  current  from-the  battery  or  other  source  of  energy 
is  connected  to  the  regular  induction  or  Rhumkorff  coil 


O  OIL    ENGINES. 

in  which  there  are  two  windings  of  wire  wound  on  core 
of  iron  wire,  the  one  being  made  of  coarse  wire,  the 
other  winding  being  of  fine  wire.  Where  a  vibrator 
is  used  in  connection  with  the  coil,  the  cam-shaft  is 
arranged  to  close  a  switch,  thus  causing  a  series  of 
sparks  to  jump  across  from  one  terminal'  to  the  other 
in  the  cylinder  and  ignite  the  gases.  Other  forms  of 


FIG.  4. 

electrical  igniters  are  the  New  Standard  and  the 
Splitdorf  jump-spark  apparatus. 

The  fourth-named  type  of  ignition,  that  due  to  com- 
pression in  the  cylinder  alone,  is  found  only  with  the 
Diesel  motor.  The  combustion  is  one  of  its  unique 
features.  In  this  type  of  engine  the  compression  pres- 
sure inside  the  cylinder  reaches  about  520  pounds  per 
square  inch,  the  compression  being  arranged  to  con- 
tinue until  combustion  commences  to  take  place. 

Advantages  are  claimed  for  each  of  these  igniting 
devices  by  the  various  manufacturers  using  them.  The 


INTRODUCTORY.  7 

electrical  igniter  is  easily  controlled  and  is  reliable,  but 
the  batteries,  in  unskilled  hands,  sometimes  give 
trouble,  and  it  is  essential  that  the  parts  forming  the 
contacts  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  condition ;  otherwise 
faulty  working  of  the  engine  will  result. 

The  tube  igniter  always  requires  heating  by  the  ex- 
ternal heating  lamp,  upon  which  it  is  dependent,  like 
all  types  of  vaporizers  which  require  external  heat ;  so 
likewise  is  also  the  tube  dependent  entirely  upon  it. 
The  former  difficulty  with  ignition  tubes  and  their 
frequent  bursting  has  now  been  minimized  by  the  use 
of  nickel  alloy,  porcelain  or  other  material  more  suit- 
able than  wrought  iron  for  this  purpose. 

The  hot  surface  type  of  igniter  formerly  gave  trouble 
caused  by  its  temperature  cooling  down  at  light  loads. 
This  type,  however,  which  has  now  been  adopted  in 
various  forms,  has  been  designed  to  overcome  this  dif- 
ficulty, and  can  now  be  relied  upon  to  keep  hot  when 
running  at  light  loads. 

VAPORIZERS.— As  already  stated,  the  problem  of 
efficiently  vaporizing  petroleum  was  the  most  difficult 
feature  to  encounter  in  designing  oil  engines.  This 
obstacle  has  been,  however,  entirely  overcome  by 
different  methods,  and  of  recent  years  many  types  of 
engines  using  kerosene  as  fuel  have  been  designed, 
and  are  now  working  satisfactorily. 

The  different  types  of  vaporizers  have  been  classified 
as  follows: 

I.  The  vaporizer  into  which  the  charge  of  oil  is 
injected  by  a  spraying  nozzle. being  connected  to  cylin- 
der through  a  valve. 


8  OIL    ENGINES. 

2.  That  into  which  the  oil  is  injected,  together  with 
some  air,  the  larger  volume  of  air,  however,  entering 
the  cylinder  through  separate  valve. 

3.  That  vaporizer  in  which  the  oil  and  all  the  air 
supply  (passing  over  it)  is  injected,  but  being  without 
spraying  device. 

4.  The  type  into  which  oil  is  injected  directly,  air 
being  drawn  into  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  separate 
valve,  the  explosive  mixture  being  formed  only  with 
compression. 

With  each  type  of  vaporizer  some  advantage  is 
claimed,  but  corresponding  disadvantage  can  perhaps 
be  named.  For  instance,  in  type  I,  though  the  mixture 
of  oil  and  air  is  more  complete,  and  the  vaporizing 
probably  greater  than  in  the  other  types,  yet  the  system 
of  having  an  explosive  mixture  at  any  other  place  than 
in  the  cylinder  and  at  any  other  period  than  at  the 
time  of  actual  ignition  may  be  urged  as  a  great  dis- 
advantage to  this  system. 

With  class  4  the  mixture  of  air  and  oil  may  not  be 
so  complete,  and  the  initial  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
consequent  upon  explosion  less  than  the  pressure  ob- 
tained with  other  types;  yet  the  extreme  simplicity  of 
this  type  is  an  advantage  in  daily  use  which  cannot  be 
overestimated. 

With  class  2  the  highest  mean  effective  pressure  is 
obtained  and  the  lowest  consumption  of  oil  per  H.  P. 
is  believed  to  be  recorded,  but  this  type  generally  re- 
quires a  heating  lamp  to  maintain  the  proper  tempera- 
ture, and  then  on  the  efficiency  of  the  heating  lamp 
depends  the  efficiency  of  the  engine  itself.  There  have, 


INTRODUCTORY.  9 

in  recent,  years,  been  perfected  some  very  simple 
smokeless  kerosene  burning  lamps,  and  this  previous 
difficulty  has  now  accordingly  been  overcome. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  designing  a  satisfac- 
tory vaporizer  is  that  of  making  it  such  that  at  all 
loads  and  under  all  conditions  it  will  vaporize  the  fuel. 
The  heat  of  the  chamber  should  be  high  enough  to 
vaporize  the  oil,  but  never  hot  enough  to  decompose 
the  oil,  or  a  deposit  of  carbon  will  be  made  which  is 
injurious  to  the  satisfactory  working  of  the  vaporizer. 

It  would,  therefore,  appear  that  each  type,  while 
possessing  features  giving  it  individually  an  advantage 
as  compared  with  other  types,  has  some  detracting 
feature  also.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the 
various  types  of  vaporizers,  showing  the  four  different 
methods  named  in  detail : 

THE  HORNSBY-AKROYD  vaporizer  is  shown  at  Fig. 
I,  and  also  as  it  is  at  present  manufactured  in  Fig.  76, 
which  illustrates  a  complete  section  of  this  engine. 
The  oil  in  this  method  of  vaporizing  is  injected 
through  the  spray  nipple,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  directly 
into  the  vaporizer  by  the  oil-supply  pump.  The  injec- 
tion of  oil  into  the  vaporizer  takes  place  only  during 
the  air-suction  stroke.  The  lever  which  actuates  the 
air-valve  also  simultaneously  operates  the  oil-pump. 
When  the  piston  is  at  the  outward  end  of  the  cylinder, 
the  suction  period  being  then  completed,  the  cylinder 
is  filled  with  atmospheric  air,  and  the  vaporizing 
chamber,  which  is  at  all  times  open  to  the  cylinder,  is 
also  at  the  same  time  filled  with  oil  vapor. 

The   compression   stroke   of   the   piston   then   com- 


10 


OIL    ENGINES. 


mences;  the  atmospheric  air  in  the  cylinder  is  thus 
driven  through  the  contracted  opening  between  the 
cylinder  and  the  vaporizer  into  the  vaporizer  itself, 
already  rilled  with  the  oil  vapor.  As  compression  due 
to  the  piston  movement  proceeds,  the  mixture  which 


FIG.  5. 

at  first  is  too  rich  to  explode  in  the  vaporizer  gradually 
becomes  more  diluted  with  the  air,  and  when  the  com- 
pression stroke  is  completed  the  mixture  of  oil,  vapor 
and  air  attains  proper  explosive  proportions.  The 
mixture  is  then  ignited  simply  by  the  hot  walls  of  this 


INTRODUCTORY.  II 

same  vaporizing  chamber  and  also  by  the  heat  gener- 
ated by  compression.  No  other  means  of  ignition  is 
necessary.  No  heating  lamp  is  required  to  maintain 
the  necessary  temperature  of  this  vaporizer;  a  lamp 
is,  however,  required  to  heat  it  for  a  few  minutes 
before  starting. 

THE  CROSSLEY  method  of  vaporizing.  This  vapor- 
izer is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  2.  It  consists  of  three 
main  parts,  the  body,  the  passages,-  and  the  chimney 
cover.  There  are  no  valves  about  the  vaporizer  itself ; 
it  is  arranged  to  keep  hot,  and  while  not  in  contact 
with  the  cooled  cylinder  is  near  to  the  vapor  inlet  valve 
to  which  it  delivers  its  charges.  The  passages  inside 
which  vaporization  of  the  oil  takes  place  are  detach- 
able. 

The  wrought-iron  ignition  tube  is  placed  below  the 
vaporizer  communicating  directly  with  the  cylinder.  A 
heating  lamp  is  always  required  to  heat  the  vaporizer 
and  maintain  the  ignition  tube  at  proper  red  heat.  The 
method  of  vaporizing  is  as  follows : 

When  the  suction  stroke  of  the  piston  commences  the 
oil  inlet  valve  is  automatically  lifted  from  its  seat  and 
allows  oil  to  be  drawn  into  the  vaporizer  through  it. 
The  vaporizer  blocks  having  been  heated  by  the  inde- 
pendent lamp,  and  likewise  the  chimney  being  hot  also, 
heated  air  is  drawn  in  passing  first  through  the  aper- 
tures in  the  sides  of  the  chimney  communicating  with 
the  passages  of  vaporizer  blocks.  The  air  is  thus  thor- 
oughly heated,  and  next  it  passes  over  the  heated  cast- 
iron  blocks.  To  these  blocks  the  oil  also  flows  from 
the  oil  measurer.  The  heated  air  here  mingles  with 


12  OIL   ENGINES. 

the  oil  and  vaporizes  it,  and  the  two  together  properly 
mixed  are  drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  the  vapor 
valve.  Simultaneously,  while  the  above  process  of 
vaporization  is  proceeding,  air  is  also  entering  the 
cylinder  through  the  air-inlet  valve  on  the  top  of  the 
cylinder.  Thus,  when  the  suction  stroke  of  the  piston 
is  completed  the  cylinder  is  full  of  heated  oil  vapor 
drawn  in  through  the  vapor  valve,  too  rich  to  explode 
by  itself,  and  also  atmospheric  air  drawn  in  through  the 
air  valve.  Both  elements  are  then  compressed  by  the 
inward  stroke  of  the  piston  completing  the  mixture  of 
the  oil,  vapor  and  air.  When  compression  is  com- 
pleted, ignition  takes  place  by  the  gases  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  red-hot  ignition  tube. 

THE  CAMPBELL. — This  method  of  vaporizing  differs 
from  those  already  described  in  that  the  whole  charge 
of  air  to  the  cylinder  is  drawn  in  through  the  vaporizer. 
No  air  whatever  enters  the  cylinder  otherwise. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  Campbell  vaporizer  in  section. 
The  fuel  oil  is  fed  to  the  vaporizer  by  gravitation  from 
the  fuel  tank  placed  above  the  engine-cylinder,  and 
enters  the  vaporizer  with  the  incoming  air.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  suction  stroke  the  automatic  air-inlet 
valve  is  opened  by  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinder, 
and  the  oil  which  has  entered  through  the  small  holes 
at  the  inlet  valve  is  drawn  through  the  heated  vaporizer 
into  the  cylinder.  At  the  compression  stroke  the  mix- 
ture of  the  vapor  is  completed,  and  being  forced  into 
the  ignition  tube  is  ignited  in  the  ordinary  way.  The 
ignition  tube  is  heated  by  heating  lamp  fed  by  gravita- 
tion from  the  oil  tank.  The  same  lamp  also  heats  the 


INTRODUCTORY.  13 

vaporizer  as  well  as  the  tube.  The  governing  is 
effected  by  allowing  the  exhaust-valve  to  remain  open 
when  the  normal  speed  is  exceeded ;  consequently  no 
charge  is  in  that  case  drawn  into  the  cylinder. 

The  method  of  vaporizing  the  oil  with  the  PRIEST- 
MAN  engine  is  as  follows : 


FIG.  6. 


The  oil  is  stored  under  pressure  in  the  fuel-tank, 
which  pressure  is  created  by  the  separate  air-pump 
actuated  from  the  cam-shaft.  The  oil  is  thus  forced  to 
the  sprayer,  which  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  where  it 
meets  a  further  supply  of  air.  The  mixing  of  the  air 
and  oil  takes  place  just  as  both  elements  are  injected 


OIL    ENGINES. 


into  the  vaporizing  chamber,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The 
heating  of  the  vaporizer  is  first  accomplished  with  sep- 
arate lamp ;  afterward,  when  the  engine  is  working,  the 
exhaust  gases  heat  the  vaporizer  by  being  carried 
around  in  the  outside  passage  of  the  vaporizer  cham- 


A      o 


) "  On.  TMX  Ca»xec  ^ 
•  '  On.  PASSAGF  . 


FIG.  7. 


ber,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  On  the  outward  or  suction 
stroke  of  the  piston  the  mixture  of  oil  vapor  and  air 
already  formed  and  heated  in  the  vaporizer  is  drawn 
into  the  cylinder  through  the  automatic  inlet-valve 
shown  on  the  left  of  Fig.  6.  The  compression  stroke 


INTRODUCTORY.  1 5 

then  takes  place  in  the  ordinary  course  of  the  Beau  de 
Rochas  cycle. 

The  governing  is  effected  by  means  of  the  pendu- 
lum or  centrifugal  governor,  shown  at  Fig.  7,  control- 
ling the  amount  of  air  entering  the  vaporizer  as  well 
as  reducing  the  supply  of  oil  simultaneously.  Thus, 
the  explosive  mixture  is  always  composed  of  the  same 
proportions  of  air  and  oil,  but  as  the  supply  of  air 
is  thus  curtailed  the  compression  in  the  cylinder  is  also 
necessarily  reduced  when  the  engine  is  working  at  half 
or  light  load.  The  governor  thus  varies  the  pressure  of 
the  explosion,  reducing  it  when  necessary,  but  not 
causing  at  any  time  the  complete  omission  of  an  ex- 
plosion. 

,  The  system  of  throttling  the  pressure,  somewhat 
similar  to  a  steam  engine,  produces  very  steady  run- 
ning. 

By  this  system  a  thorough  vaporization  of  the  oil 
takes  place. 

The  ignition  of  the  gases  is  caused  by  electric  spark- 
igniter,  the  spark  being  .  timed  by  contact-pieces  ac- 
tuated from  the  cam-shaft  and  horizontal  rod  actuating 
the  exhaust-valve,  and  is  of  the  "  jump-spark"  type 
as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

The  oil  engines  now  in  use  and  herein  described  are 
designed  with  their  valve  mechanisms  arranged  to 
work  either  on  the  Beau  de  Rochas  cycle,  or  on  the 
two-cycle  system.  These  two  cycles  are  variously  des- 
ignated, the  former  being  generally  known  as  the  Otto 
cycle,  the  four-cycle,  and  sometimes,  but  erroneously, 
the  two-cycle.  Correctly,  it  should  be  named  the  Beau 


i6 


OIL    ENGINES. 


de  Rochas  cycle  after  its  inventor.  The  other  cycle 
is  generally  known  as  the  "  two-cycle/'  or  sometimes 
as  the  "  single  cycle,"  the  first  designation,  however, 
being  correct.  With  those  engines  working  on  the 
Beau  de  Rochas  cycle,  which  includes  now  many  if 
not  all  the  leading  and  best  known  types  of  engine, 


THE  BEAU  DE  ROCHAS  CYCLE. 


the  cycle  of  operation  of  the  valves  is  as  follows : 

(a)  Drawing  in  the  air  and  fuel  during    the    first 
outward  stroke  of  the  piston  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

(b)  Compression  of  the  mixture  during  the  first  re- 
turn stroke  of  the  piston. 

(c)  Ignition  of  the  charge  and    expansion  in    the 
cylinder  during  second  outward  stroke  of  the  piston. 

(d)  Exhausting,  the  products  of  combustion  being 
expelled  during  the  second  return  stroke  of  the  piston. 

These  operations  are  clearly  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration,  and  thus,  in  this  system,  the  one 
cycle  is  completed  in  two  revolutions  of  the  crank- 


INTRODUCTORY. 


shaft  or  during  four  strokes  of  the  piston.  The  im- 
pulse at  the  piston  is  obtained  only  once  during  the  two 
revolutions. 

The   second    system,   named   "two-cycle,"    is   com- 


THE  TWO-CYCLE  PLAN. 

pleted  in  one  revolution,  or  every  two  strokes  of  the 
piston,  and  is  also  clearly  shown  by  the  accompanying 
illustration.  The  operation  of  the  valves  is  as  follows : 


l8  OIL    ENGINES. 

(a)  During  the  first  part  of  the  outward  stroke  of 
the  piston — that  is,  until  the  piston  uncovers  the  ex- 
haust-port— expansion  is  taking  place.     When  the  ex- 
haust-port is  opened  the  products  of  combustion  are 
expelled ;  the  piston  then  moves  a  little  farther  forward 
and  uncovers  the  air-inlet  port  communicating  with 
the  crank  chamber.    The  air  at  slight  pressure  at  once 
rushes  into  the  cylinder,  assisting  the  expulsion  of  the 
burnt  gases,  and  filling  the  cylinder  with  air  already 
compressed  to  five  or  six  pounds  in  the  crank  chamber ; 
this  completes  the  first  stroke  of  this  cycle. 

(b)  The  next  stroke  (being  the  inward  stroke  of  the 
piston)   the  supply  of    incoming    air  and  fuel  is  first 
taken  in;  then  compression  of  the  charge  takes  place. 
Ignition  follows  when  the  piston  reaches  the  back  end. 
These  two  strokes  of  the  piston,  or  one  revolution  of 
the  crank-shaft,  completes  this  cycle  of  operation. 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  BOTH  CYCLES. 

The  Beau  de  Rochas  cycle  engine,  having  only  one 
impulse  during  two  revolutions,  requires  the  dimen- 
sion of  the  cylinder  to  be  greater  in  order  to  obtain  a 
given  power  than  would  be  required  with  the  two- 
cycle  system.  Large  and  heavy  fly-wheels  must  also 
be  fitted  to  the  engine  in  order  to  maintain  an  even 
speed  of  the  crank-shaft.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
cycle  has  many  advantages.  The  explosion  is  con- 
trolled more  readily.  The  idle  stroke  of  the  inlet  air 
cools  the  cylinder  and  allows  sufficient  time  to  entirely 
expel  the  products  of  combustion,  and  with  this  sys- 


INTRODUCTORY.  IQ 

tern  no  outside  air-pump  is  required,  nor  is  there  any 
fear  of  the  compression  being  irregular  by  leakage  in 
the  crank  chamber  or  otherwise. 

With  the  two-cycle  system  air  must  in  some  way 
be  independently  compressed.  If  this  is  accomplished 
in  the  crank  chamber,  then  leakage  may  occur  and  bad 
combustion  follow,  with  accompanying  bad  results  to 
valves  and  piston.  More  cooling  water  is  also  needed 
to  cool  the  cylinder,  and  the  proper  lubrication  of  the 
piston  may  consequently  be  very  difficult  to  accom- 
plish. With  this  system  steadier  running  is  obtained, 
nor  are  the  heavy  fly-wheels  required  as  with  the  engines 
of  the  Beau  de  Rochas  cycle. 

Explosive  engines  were  formerly  quite  extensively 
built  to  work  on  the  two-cycle  plan,  either  with  inde- 
pendent air-pump  or  by  compressing  the  air  in  the 
crank  chamber,  but  as  soon  as  the  Otto  patent  expired 
a  large  nunlber  of  engines  were  changed  to  that  sys- 
tem. The  former  two-cycle  engines  were  not  economi- 
cal, and  when  the  economy  of  the  Beau  de  Rochas  or 
Otto  cycle  was  demonstrated  its  superiority  was 
quickly  acknowledged. 

Oil  engines  have  more  generally  been  built  of  the 
four-cycle  than  other  explosive  engines.  In  this  work 
only  one  is  described,  which  is  operated  on  the.  two- 
cycle  system,  for  which  very  satisfactory  results  are 
claimed. 


CHAPTER    II. 
ON  DESIGNING    OIL   ENGINES. 

THE  term  "  oil  engine,"  as  already  stated  in  Chap- 
ter L,  refers  here  only  to  those  engines  using  as  fuel 
ordinary  kerosene  or  the  crude  and  inferior  heavy 
grades  of  petroleum  of  specific  gravity  .79  to  .85,  the 
power  developed  being  derived  from  the  explosion  and 
combustion  of  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbon  gas  and  air 
similar  to  the  impulse  obtained  in  other  internal  com- 
bustion engines.  Oil  engines  are  similar  in  principle 
to  gas  engines,  but  as  the  liquid  fuel  must  be  vaporized 
or  gasefied  in  an  oil  engine,  an  additional  apparatus, 
as  already  fully  described  in  the  last  chapter,  is  neces- 
sary to  perform  this  process,  which,  with  a  gas  engine, 
is  accomplished  separately  and  previously  in  the  gas 
works  or  by  "  producer"  gas  plant. 

The  formulae  used  for  designing  gas  engines  are 
generally  applicable  to  oil  engines  also,  but  a  greater 
factor  of  safety  is  sometimes  allowed  with  the  oil 
engine  because  it  is  possible,  especially  with  some  types 
of  vaporizers,  to  occasionally  have  greater  pressure  of 
explosion  than  is  ordinarily  created  chiefly  by  reason 
of  improper  combustion  of  the  previous  charge  or  by 
the  governor  having  cut  out  several  charges.  For  this 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES.  21 

possible  increased  pressure,  the  strength  of  parts 
otherwise  sufficient  if  of  smaller  dimensions  are  conse- 
quently increased.  The  formulae  herein  given  are 
derived  chiefly  from  experience,  and  are  believed  to 
be  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern  practice,  and 
are  also  taken  from  well-known  gas-engine  hand-books 
by  kind  permission  of  the  authors. 

EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES  are  of  substantial  design  in  or- 
der to  withstand  the  continual  shock  and  vibrations 
incident  thereto,  and  should  pre-eminently  be  as  acces- 
sible as  possible  in  the  working  parts,  which  mdy 
require  adjustment  from  time  to  time  when  in  actual 
service.  The  starting  gear  and  other  parts  to  be 
handled  by  the  attendant  when  starting  and  running 
the  engines  incident  to  their  operation  should  be  placed 
in  close  proximity  to  each  other. 

Simplicity  in  construction  is,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
the  essential  feature  of  an  oil  engine.  Above  all  other 
prime  movers,  the  oil  engine  is  a  machine  intended  for 
use  in  any  part  of  the  world  where  its  fuel  is  obtain- 
able, and  where,  perhaps,  no  mechanic  is  available. 
Accordingly,  all  the  valves  should  be  arranged  so  as 
to  be  easily  removed  for  examination  and  repairs. 
The  spraying  and  igniting  device,  as  well  as  the  vapor- 
izer, should  be  so  designed  as  to  facilitate  removal  and 
repairs.  In  short,  an  oil  engine,  to  be  successful 
mechanically  and  commercially,  should  be  so  con- 
structed that  it  can  be  successfully  worked,  cleaned 
and  adjusted  by  entirely  unskilled  attendants. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  evolved  in  the  different 
types  of  oil  engines  now  in  use  varies  from  40  to  75 


22 


OIL    ENGINES. 


Ibs.,  and  is  less  than  the  pressure  obtained  in  the 
cylinder  of  gas  and  gasoline  engines,  which  is  often 
as  high  as  90  Ibs.  Consequently,  to  obtain  relatively 
the  same  power,  the  dimensions  of  the  oil-engine  cylin- 
der will  be  greater  than  those  of  the  gas  engine. 

THE  CYLINDER  is  made  in  different  types,  either  to 
bolt  up  to  the  bed-plate  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  or  is  made 


FIG.  8. 


with  faced  flanges  on  the  sides  to  be  bolted  down  to 
the  engine  bed-plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  in  both  in- 
stances being  cast  all  in  one  piece.  The  cylinder  as 
manufactured  by  some  European  makers  is  made  in 
two  and  sometimes  three  parts,  with  internal  joint. 
The  inner  liner  being  held  at  the  back  end  only,  the 
front  end  joint  between  the  liner  and  the  outer  cylinder 
is  made  with  rubber  ring.  This  arrangement  leaves 
the  inner  sleeve  free  to  expand  lengthwise,  and 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  23 

also  allows  the  strain  of  the  explosion  to  be  transmitted 
only  through  the  outer  cylinder.  Except  for  the  larger- 
sized  engines  of  over  40  H.  P.,  the  cylinder  made  in 
one  piece  is  very  satisfactory.  The  circulating  water 
space  around  the  cylinder  is  made  as  is  shown  in 
Figs.  8  and  9,  being  f "  to  ij"  deep,  the  water  inlet 
and  outer  pipes  being  so  arranged  as  to  allow  free  and 
efficient  circulation  of  the  cooling  water  around  the 
cylinder.  By  some  manufacturers  this  space  for  water 
is  arranged  to  cool  only  that  part  of  the  cylinder  cover- 
ing the  travel  of  the  piston-rings,  instead  of  the  whole 
cylinder,  as  here  shown.  Other  cylinders  are  cast  in 
one  piece  with  the  frame  or  bed-plate  having  internal 
sleeve.  This  arrangement  has,  among  other  advan- 
tages, that  of  cheapness,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage 
that  if  the  cylinder  for  any  reason  should  require  re- 
newing the  whole  frame  must  be  renewed  with  it. 

The  cylinder  cover  is  made  in  some  engines  with  the 
valves,  air-inlet  valve  housing  or  guide  inserted  into  it, 
and  with  space  also  in  the  larger-sized  engines  ar- 
ranged for  cooling  water-jacket.  Other  engines  have 
the  igniter  placed  in  the  cover,  while  cylinders  of  the 
type  shown  in  Fig.  8  require  no  cover,  the  vaporizer 
flange  closing  the  contracted  hole  in  the  end  of  the 
cylinder. 

The  cylinder  in  all  cases  should  have  the  valves 
brought  as  close  as  possible  to  the  cylinder  walls,  and 
all  ports  or  passages  so  arranged  as  to  offer  the  mini- 
mum amount  of  internal  cooling  surface  to  the  hot 
gases  of  combustion. 

CYLINDER  CLEARANCE. — The    percentage    of    clear- 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  25 

ance  in  the  cylinder  is  ascertained  by  dividing  the  total 
clearance  in  the  cylinder,  including  all  ports  or  other 
spaces,  by  the  piston  displacement. 

The  clearance  allowed  will  depend  upon  the  pressure 
of  compression  as  determined  by  experiment  and  by 
the  indicator  diagram,  producing  properly  timed 
ignition  and  combustion. 

This  pressure,  it  will  be  noted,  on  referring  to  the  va- 
rious indicator  cards  shown  herein,  now  varies  in  differ- 
ent types  of  engines  from  50  to  70  pounds,  which  it  is 
believed  is  representative  of  present  practice,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Diesel  motor,  which  engine  com- 
presses to  over  500  pounds  before  combustion  takes 
place  in  the  cylinder.  This  exceedingly  high  compres- 
sion is  rendered  possible  by  the  special  Diesel  system  of 
injection  of  the  charge  of  fuel. 

The  fuel  in  this  case  enters  the  cylinder  only  at  the 
extreme  end  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  compres- 
sion period  being  then  completed. 

THE  CRANK-SHAFT  of  an  oil  engine  must  be  made  of 
sufficient  strength  not  only  to  withstand  the  sudden 
pressure  due  to  ordinary  explosion,  but  also  to  with- 
stand the  strain  consequent  upon  the  greater  explosive 
pressure  which  may  possibly  be  caused  by  previous 
missed  explosions,  as  already  described.  The  crank- 
shaft is  proportioned  in  relation  to  the  area  of  the 
cylinder  and  the  maximum  pressure  of  explosion  and 
the  length  of  stroke.  Oil-engine  crank-shafts  are 
usually  made  of  the  "  slab  type,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  10. 
It  has  been  said  with  regard  to  explosive  engines  that 
their  comparative  efficiency  may  be  to  a  certain  extent 


26 


OIL    ENGINES. 


gauged  by  the  strength  of  the  crank-shaft,  because 
if  the  crank-shaft  is  of  too  small  dimensions,  it  will 
spring  with  each  explosion,  causing  the  fly-wheels  to 
run  out  of  truth  and  also  uneven  wear  of  the  bearings. 
Table  I.  gives  a  list  of  dimensions  of  crank-shafts 
of  both  oil  and  gas  engines  which  are  made  by  some 
leading  manufacturers,  together  with  the  dimensions 
of  the  cylinder  and  stroke. 

Different    formulae    for    the    dimensions    of    crank- 


FIG.  10. 


shafts  are  given  by  various  writers  on  this  subject. 
The  following,  for  example  (which  is  recommended 
by  the  writer),  is  given  by  Mr.  William  Norris. 


120 


5"  =  load  on  piston    (area  of  cylinder  in  inches  X 

maximum  pressure  of  explosion. 
/  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet. 
D  =  diameter  of  crank-shaft  in  inches. 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES. 


This  formula,  however,  neglects  the  bending  action 
due  to  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  crank-pin  from  the 
centre  of  the  bearings.  The  diameter  should  be 
thus  slightly  increased.  Mr.  Norris  also  gives  a 
lengthy  description,  with  example,  of  ascertaining  all 
the  dimensions  of  the  crank-shaft  by  means  of  the 
graphic  method. 

TABLE  I. — SIZES  OF  CRA':K-SHAFTS. 


Cylinder. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

G. 

DUim. 

Stroke. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

i  . 

in. 

ft      in 

in. 

5 

8 

If 

l| 

4 

4 

2 

6i 

2i 

5t 

9 

2i 

3 

4* 

a* 

2f 

81 

3i 

71 

II 

*f 

3i 

5* 

4 

3 

9i 

4l 

8J 

15 

3i 

4 

7^ 

2j 

3* 

i2| 

5 

8^ 

18 

3i 

4 

9 

3 

3i 

I      2 

5 

9* 

18 

3* 

4j 

9 

3t 

3i 

i    3 

5i 

12 

18 

4i 

4f 

9 

3i 

4* 

i    3* 

6i 

«* 

21 

4i 

4t 

10} 

4 

3* 

i    3f 

4 

14 

21 

5^ 

5* 

TO* 

4i 

4l 

1    5 

8* 

17 

24 

7 

8 

12 

5f  - 

7i 

I   IO.-J- 

10 

19 

30 

7* 

8 

13 

6 

9 

2       2 

1  1 

7 

I  2 

'TV 

2f 

6 

2yV 

*l 

8f 

3l 

9 

14 

2V 

3 

7 

2l 

3ft 

4 

1  1 

15 

3rs" 

4 

7^ 

«A 

44 

•I«4 

4t 

'3i 

16 

3B 

4J 

8 

3yV 

4l 

i3f 

5l 

THE  BALANCING  of  crank-shafts  and  reciprocating 
parts  is  another  important  feature  of  an  oil  engine. 
With  a  single-cylinder  explosive  engine  to  perfectly 
accomplish  the  balancing  is  impracticable.  Most  manu- 
facturers, therefore,  only  balance  their  engines  as  far 


«?C^B 


ON   DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  2Q 

as  the  horizontal  movement  is  concerned.  The  follow- 
ing formulae  is  considered  correct,  and  has  proved 
satisfactory  for  the  horizontal  type  of  engines  : 


w  =  weight  in  Ibs.  of  balance  weight. 

C  —  crank-pin  and  rotating  part  of  connecting-rod 

in  Ibs. 

R  =.  radius  of  crank  circle  in  inches. 
G  =  two-thirds  weight  of  all  remaining  reciprocat- 

ing parts  in  Ibs. 

5*  =  weight  of  crank-arms  in  Ibs. 
r  =  distance   of   centre   of  gravity  of   crank-arms 

from  centre  of  rotation. 
a  =  distance  of  centre  of  gravity  of  counterweight 

from  centre  of  rotation. 

Some  designers,  however,  the  writer  has  observed, 
make  the  crank  balance  weights  as  large  as  space  be- 
tween bearings  and  engine  bed  will  allow  —  that  is, 
when  the  weights  are  fastened  to  the  crank-arms,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  n,  thus  overbalancing  the  crank  and 
reciprocating  parts.  While  this  would  appear  bad 
practice,  such  engines  have  been  known  to  run  without 
the  slightest  vibration.  For  the  vertical  type  of  engines 
the  whole  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts,  instead  of 
two-thirds  weight,  has  been  satisfactorily  taken. 

Crank-shafts  of  explosive  engines  are  sometimes  bal- 
anced by  metal  suitably  placed-on  the  rim  or  hub  of  the 
fly-wheel  ;  otherwise  some  wheels  are  made  with  recess 


3O  OIL   ENGINES. 

left  in  rim  placed  just  in  line  with  crank-pin,  so  that 
the  metal  left  out  of  the  rim  of  the  fly-wheel  will 
equalize  the  metal  which  is  contained  in  the  crank-pin 
and  other  parts  to  be  balanced.  Balancing  by  means  of 
the  recess  at  the  outer  radius  of  the  fly-wheel  has  the 
advantage  of  requiring  no  extra  metal,  and  is  cheaper 
as  regards  workmanship  as  compared  with  the  system 
as  shown  in  Fig.  n.  In  each  of  these  methods,  how- 
ever, the  fly-wheel  itself  is  out  of  balance,  and  when 
revolving  tends  to  make  the  crank-shaft  run  out  of 
truth. 

The  more  expensive  method  of  placing  balance 
\veights  on  the  cheek  of  the  crank-shaft  itself,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  n,  is  considered  by  the  writer  the  most  satis- 
factory method.  In  this  way  the  crank-pin  and  recip- 
rocating parts  are  themselves  separately  balanced  re- 
gardless of  the  fly-wheels,  and  the  fly-wheel  being  itself 
also  balanced,  when  running  allows  the  crank-shaft  to 
remain  absolutely  true.  Further,  it  is  also  advan- 
tageous to  core  small  recesses  in  the  fly-wheel  rim,  to 
be  filled  up,  if  required,  with  lead  so  as  to  exactly  bal- 
ance the  wheel  should  it,  from  inequality  in  casting, 
be  heavier  in  one  part  than  in  another.  This,  how- 
ever, is  only  requisite  in  special  cases,  or  where  the 
engine  is  running  at  a  very  high  rate  of  speed. 

CONNECTING-RODS  are  made  of  various  designs  in 
cross-section,  but  that  chiefly  used  is  made  of  soft  steel 
and  circular,  with  marine  type  brasses  at  crank-pin  end 
and  similar  bearings  at  the  piston  or  small  end.  By 
some  makers  the  latter  bearing  is  made  with  adjust- 
able wedge  and  screw,  the  end  of  the  connecting-rod 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES. 


then  being  slotted  out,  with  brass  bushes  fitted  into  it, 
as  shown  at  Fig.  12.  For  small  engines  a  good  and 
cheap  form  of  connecting-rod  is  made  .of  phosphor- 
bronze  metal,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 


FIG.  12. 

The  connecting-rod  of  a  single-acting  engine  has, 
chiefly,  compression  strains  to  withstand;  both  the 
outer  end  bearings  have  little  or  no  strain  on  them, 
except  that  due  to  momentum  of  the  reciprocating 
parts.  The  connecting-rod  should  be  from  two  to 


OIL    ENGINES. 


three  strokes  in  length.     In  computing  its  strength, 
the  connecting-rod  can  be  taken  as  a  strut  supported 


FIG.  13. 
at  either  end.    The  mean  diameter  when  made  of  mild 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  33 

steel  is  arrived  at  by  the  following  formulae,  as  given 
by  authorities  on  steam-engine  design  :- 

x  ==  0.035  VD  I  Vm. 

x  =  mean  diameter  of  connecting-rod  (half  sum  of 
diameter  of  both  ends). 

D  =  diameter  of  cylinder  in  inches. 

/  —  distance  in  inches  between  centre  of  connecting- 
rod. 

m  =  maximum  explosive  pressure  in  Ibs.  per  square 
inch. 

This  formula,  however,  is  excessive  for  medium 
and  slow  speed  engines,  and  in  such  instances  the 
writer  has  used  the  following  formulae  with  satisfac- 
tory results — namely: 


0.028     D  I  Vm. 

THE  PISTON  in  single-acting  engines  is  generally  of 
the  trunk  pattern,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  with  internal 
gudgeon-pin  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  piston,  secured 
at  either  end  to  the  piston  by  set-screws.  The  steam- 
engine  cross-head  and  slide-bars  are  dispensed  with, 
the  power  being  transmitted  directly  from  the  gudgeon- 
pin  of  the  piston  to  the  crank. 

The  piston  is  made  of  hard  close-grained  iron,  and 
should  not  be  less  than  5-16"  in  thickness  for  small 
engines  and  slightly  heavier  for  the  larger  sizes.  In 


34 


OIL    ENGINES. 


each  case  the  metal  is  thicker  at  the  back,  than  at 
the  front  end.  The  piston  is  usually  1.6  diameters  in 
length.  Three  cast-iron  piston-rings,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
15,  are  fitted  to  the  smaller  engines,  four  and  five  rings 
being  required  to  keep  the  piston  tight  in  the  larger 
sizes.  A  single  ring  is  sometimes  added,  placed  in 
front  of  the  gudgeon-pin,  but  its  use  is  not  recom- 
mended. The  pressure  on  the  piston,  caused  by  the 


FIG.  14. 

explosive  pressure  and  due  to  the  angularity  of  the 
connecting-rod,  should  not  be  greater  than  25  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  of  rubbing  surface. 

PISTON  SPEED. — The  speed  of  the  piston  for  hori- 
zontal oil  engines  is  usually  allowed  to  be  not  greater 
than  600  feet  per  minute;  for  the  vertical  type  this  is 
somewhat  increased.  The  movement  of  the  valves,  oil 
spraying  and  vaporizing  devices,  it  is  usually  assumed, 
precludes  a  higher  speed.  The  writer  has,  however, 
worked  a  ij  B.  H.  P.  vertical  oil  engine  running  at 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES. 


35 


600  revolutions  per  minute  with  satisfactory  results. 
Thus,  300  movements  of  the  valves,  o;l-pump  and 
sprayer  were  completed  per  minute. 

FLY-WHEELS  on  explosive  engines  are  made  much 
heavier  than  in  steam  engines  of  the  same  capacity. 


FIG.  15. 

The  power  is  generated  during  only  about  twenty-five 
per  cent,  of  the  time  of  working  in  single-cylinder 
four-cycle  explosive  engines,  hence  the  necessity  of  the 
very  heavy  fly-wheels  in  order  to  maintain  a  steady 
speed  of  the  crank-shaft.  The  function  of  the  fly- 


30  OIL   ENGINES. 

wheel,  it  may  be  said,  is  to  store  up  the  energy  im- 
parted during  the  explosion  period  and  pay  it  out  again 
during  the  period  of  the  three  idle  strokes  of  compres- 
sion, suction  and  exhaust.  Two  fly-wheels  are  gener- 
ally supplied,  one  placed  on  each  side  of  the  main 
bearings.  Some  of  the  European  makers,  however, 


FIG.  16. 


are  now  building  their  larger  engines  provided  with 
one  heavy  fly-wheel  only,  a  separate  outside  bearing 
being  fitted  in  that  case. 

The  diameter  of  the  fly-wheel  is  usually  such  that  the 
peripheral  speed  is  from  4000  to  5000  ft.  per  minute ; 
6000  ft.  is  considered  the  maximum  allowable  speed. 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES. 


37 


The  hub  of  the  fly-wheel  is  sometimes  split  and  bolted 
together.  Oil-engine  fly-wheels  are  usually  made  as 
shown  in  Fig.  16.  The  weight  of  the  rim  can 
lated  as  follows : 

C  X  I.  H.  P. 

w~     D2  v  NS  * 

where 

C      —  constant. 
I.H.P.  =  indicated  horse-power. 

D      =  diameter  of  fly-wheel  in  feet. 
N      =  revolutions  per  minute. 
w      =  weight  in  Ibs.  of  rim. 


FIG.  17. 

The  constant  varies  according  to  the  fluctuation  in 
speed  permissible ;  for  engines  required  to  run  dy- 
namos for  electric  lighting  purposes,  C'=  50,846,290,- 
ooo.  For  engines  actuating  general  machinery  C  is 
considered  sufficient  when  taken  as  30,507,700,000. 

The  cams  are  made  of  cast  iron  or  steel  and  are 
usually  designed  as  shown  in  Fig.  17.  Cast  iron  is  ad- 


38  OIL    ENGINES. 

vantageously  "  chilled"  so  as  to  withstand  the  wear  of 
the  rollers.  The  cams,  it  is  considered,  however, 
should  preferably  be  designed  of  larger  diameter  than 
they  are  now  made. 

The  air  cam  is  usually  made  about  f "  wide.  The 
exhaust  cam,  which  has  more  work  to  perform  at  the 
period  of  opening  the  valve,  is  made  with  wider  sur- 
face than  the  air  cam. 

CYLINDER  LUBRICATORS. — The  lubrication  of  the  pis- 
ton in  explosive  engines  is  of  great  importance.  On 
those  engines  where  it  is  convenient  to  use  it,  a 
mechanical  type  of  lubricator  is  added.  This  device 
consists  of  an  oil  reservoir  into  which  a  wire  attached 
to  a  revolving  spindle  is  periodically  dipped,  the  wire 
being  also  arranged  to  wipe  over  a  projection  which 
conducts  the  oil  to  a  receptacle  placed  above  the  reser- 
voir and  connected  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The  re- 
volving spindle  is  driven  by  belt  from  the  cam-shaft. 
This  lubricator  is  advantageous  because  the  oil  must  be 
always  fed  to  the  piston  while  the  engine  is  working, 
and  the  lubricator  cannot  be  left  unopened  by  the  at- 
tendant, and  also  because  all  grit  or  dirt  in  the  oil  is 
precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  and  cannot 
flow  to  the  piston.  Sight-feed  lubricators  are  also  now 
used  for  the  lubrication  of  the  piston,  and  have  proved 
quite  as  satisfactory  as  the  mechanical  oiler. 

VALVES  AND  VALVE-BOXES. — The  dimensions  of  the 
air-inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  governed  by  the  diam- 
eter of  the  cylinder  and  the  piston  speed.  The  style 
of  the  valve-box  recommended  is  that  made  separate 
and  bolted  to  the  cylinder.  The  valve-box  can  then 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES. 


39 


be  entirely  renewed  if  necessary  and  at  small  expense. 
This  type  of  valve-box  is  shown  at  Fig.  18,  both  valves 
being  operated  from  the  cam-shaft.  The  springs  neces- 
sary to  close  air  and  exhaust  valves  in  engines  over 
10  brake  or  actual  H.  P.  are  best  placed  so  as  not  to  be 
in  close  proximity  to  the  heat.  An  arrangement  of  the 
closing  springs  of  this  description,  with  a  type  of 
spring  having  separate  hooks  at  each  end,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  19. 

Where  the  air-inlet  valve  is  made  automatic,  it  is 


FIG.  18. 

opened  by  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinder  during 
the  suction  period,  and  closed  by  a  delicate  spring,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  20.  The  air  and  exhaust  valves  and 
port  openings  are  usually  made  of  such  an  area  that 
the  velocity  of  the  air  inlet  as  it  enters  the  cylinder  is 
100  feet  per  second — the  velocity  of  the  exhaust  gases 
through  the  exhaust  or  outlet  being  about  80  feet  per 
second,  presuming  the  exhaust  products  to  be  expelled 
at  atmospheric  pressure.  The  air-inlet  valve,  if  auto- 
matic, should  be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  ingress  of  air' 


4°  OIL    ENGINES. 

without  choking.     In  calculating    the  area  of    valve 
ports  or  passages,  allowance  must  be  made  for  valve 


VALVE  BOX 


}  UJ  ( 


FIG.  19. 

guide  or  other  obstruction  in  the  passages.     The  ve- 
locity of  the  air  is  found  in  the  following  formulse : 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES.  4! 

V  =  velocity  of  air  in  ft.  per  second. 
P  =  piston  speed  in  ft.  per  second. 
a  -=.  area  of  piston  in  inches. 
ax  =  area  of  valve  opening  in  inches. 

THE  EXHAUST    BENDS    close    to    valve-box    should 
when  possible  be  of  not  less  than  5"  radius  for  the 


FIG.  20. 

smaller  engines,  which  dimension  should  be  increased 
for  larger-sized  engines. 

The  valves  are  made  of  forged  steel,  either  in  one 
piece  'or  with  cast-iron  valve  and  wrought-iron  or  steel 
stem  fitted  into  it,  and  are  shown  in  Fig.  21.  Some 
manufacturers  prefer  the  latter  on  account  of  cheap- 
ness, and  also  because  it  is  claimed  the  cast-iron  valves 
will  withstand  heat  better  than  the  forged  valve. 


OIL    ENGINES. 


THE  CRANK-SHAFT  bearing  should  be  of  such  di- 
mensions as  to  allow  a  pressure  of  not  more  than 
400  Ibs.  per  square  inch  on  the  projected  area,  and 
should  be  easily  adjustable.  These  bearings  are  made 
either  of  brass  or  babbitt  metal.  The  maximum  pres- 


CAST  IRON 


FIG.  21. 


sure,  allowed  on  the  piston-pin  should  not  be  more  than 
1000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  projected  area. 

THE  ENGINE  FRAME  should  be  of  substantial  propor- 
tions and  strongly  ribbed  to  prevent  vibration,  or  what 
is  known  as  "  panting,"  at  each  explosion.  The  frame 
is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  76. 

THE  CRANK-PIN   appears  to    be  made    of    various 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES.  43 

dimensions  in  different  types  of  engines;  a  short  pin 
of  large  diameter  is,  however,  recommended,  the  diam- 
eter being  not  less  than  1.2  times  the  shaft.  (See 
Table  I.)  The  average  pressure  allowed  is  500  Ibs. 
per  square  inch  on  the  projected  area. 

VALVE  MECHANISMS. — With  the  Beau  de  Rochas 
or  four-cycle  engine  the  valves  are  only  operated  dur- 
ing alternate  revolutions  of  the  crank-shaft.  This 
necessitates  an  arrangement  of  some  kind  of  two-to-one 
gear.  Worm-gear,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  is  considered 


FIG.  22. 

to  be  well  adapted  for  this  work.  The  power  necessary 
to  operate  the  valves  is,  in  this  case,  transmitted  from 
the  crank-shaft  by  the  worm  or  skew  gearing  through 
the  cam-shaft,  with  separate  cams  opening  the  air  and 
exhaust  valves  by  the  operating  levers,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  23.  Where  spur-gearing  (Fig.  230)  is  used  the 
cam-shaft  is  mounted  in  bearings  parallel  to  the  crank- 
shaft, the  cams  then  acting  on  the  horizontal  rod 
working  in  compression,  which  opens  the  valves. 

Various  other  arrangements  for  reducing  the  motion 
are  also  used,  the  work  accomplished  being  in  each 


44 


OIL    ENGINES. 


case  the  same  as  with  the  worm  or  spur  gear,  shaft  and 
levers — namely,  the  opening  of  the  valves  during  al- 
ternate revolutions  of  the  crank-shaft. 


'LINE  VALVE  BOX 

FIG.  23. 


In  the  two-cycle  engine  this  valve  or  valves  are 
operated  each  revolution  of  the  crank-shaft  by  eccen- 
tric or  cams  actuated  directly  from  the  crank-shaft. 


FIG.  230. 

GOVERNING  DEVICES. — The  governing  devices  for 
controlling  the  speed  of  oil  engines  are  of  two  kinds : 
first,  that  designed  to  develop  centrifugal  force,  which 


ON    DESIGNI 


NGINES. 


45 


is  balanced  either  by  suitable  controlling  spring  or  dead 
weight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24,  and,  secondly,  the  inertia 
or  pendulum  type  of  governor,  in  which  a  weight  is 


FIG.  24. 

placed  on  a  part  of  the  reciprocating  valve  motion,  and 
is  so  arranged  as  to  have  its  movement  controlled  by  a 
spring  usually  having  adjustable  tension.  (See  Fig. 
26.)  The.  governors  regulate  the  speed  of  the  engine 
by  the  following  different  methods : 

(a)  By    acting    through    suitable    levers    or    other 
mechanism  on  the  valves  controlling  the  fuel  supply 
to  the  cylinder,  either  by  means  of  a  by-pass  valve 
placed  in  the  oil-supply  pipe  to  vaporizer,  thus  allowing 
part  of  the  charge  of  oil  to  return  to  the  tank  instead 
of  entering  the  vaporizing  chamber  or  by  regulating 
the  amount  of  oil  as  well  as  the  air  supply. 

(b)  Acting  directly  on  the  oil-supply  pump,  length- 


46 


OIL    ENGINES. 


ening    or  shortening  the  stroke  of    the  pump,  as    re- 
quired. 

.(c)   Where  the  oil  vapor  is  arranged  to  be    drawn 
into  the  cylinder  with  the  incoming  air  the  governor 


FIG.  25. 

acts  on  the  exhaust-valve,  holding  it  open  during  the 
suction  stroke,  thus  preventing  the  inlet  of  vapor  to 
the  cylinder. 

(d)  By  acting  on  the  vapor  inlet-valve,  allowing 
this  valve  to  open  only  when  an  impulse  to  the  piston  is 
required. 

Engines  driving  dynamos  for  electric  lighting  and 
requiring  very  close  regulation  are  preferably  governed 
by  the  system  of  throttling  or  reducing  the  explosive 
pressures  in  the  cylinder.  Thus,  when  the  engine  ex- 
ceeds the  standard  speed  for  which  the  governor  is  set, 
only  part  of  the  vapor  or  oil  is  allowed  to  enter  the 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  47 

vaporizing  chamber  or  cylinder.     The  mixture  of  oil, 


o) 


I 


FIG.  26. 

vapor  and  air  is  accordingly  regulated,  and  the  mean 
effective  pressure  as  required  is  suitably  reduced. 


48 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  indicator  diagram  illustrates  the  variation  of 
the  M.  E.  P.  in  the  cylinder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  each 
expansion  line  registering  a  different  pressure.  No 
explosion  is  in  this  case  omitted  entirely,  and  conse- 


FIG.  27. 

quently  the  running  of  the  engine  is  even  and  regu- 
lar. 

The  hit-and-miss  type  of  governor  is  shown  in  Fig. 
26.  This  device  is  made  in  many  different  forms,  the 
mode  of  working  being  similar  in  them  all — namely, 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  49 

the  inertia  of  a  weight  controlled  by  the  spring.  When 
the  speed  of  the  crank-shaft  is  increased  the  weight  is 
moved  correspondingly  quicker ;  its  inertia  is  then  in- 
creased, and  the  strength  of  the  spring  is  overcome 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  engaging  parts  of  the  valve 
motion  to  be  disengaged  during  one  or  more  revolu- 
tions, and  consequently  where  this  device  acts  on  the 
oil-pump  the  charge  of  oil  is  missed;  and  no  explosion 
takes  place  during  the  following  cycle  of  operations. 

THE  OIL-SUPPLY  PUMP  is  placed  against  the  oil-tank 
and  base  of  engine  or  on  bracket  bolted  to  cylinder.  It 
is  usually  made  of  bronze,  with  steel  ball  valves.  Du- 
plicate suction  and  discharge  valves  are  advantageous 
in  case  one  valve  on  either  side  should  leak.  Fig.  27 
represents  oil-pump  as  used  on  the  Hornsby-Akroyd 
oil  engine. 

THE  FUEL  OIL-TANK  is  placed  in  or  bolted  against 


FIG.  28. 

the  base  of  the  engine.  It  is  then  made  of  cast  iron  as 
part  of  the  base  of  the  engine ;  otherwise  the  tank  is 
made  of  galvanized  iron  and  separate  from  the  engine 


5O  OIL    ENGINES. 

base,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  out  when  required  for 
cleaning. 

A  filter  or  strainer  for  cleaning  the  oil  as  it  passes 
to  the  oil-pump  is  placed  in  the  tank,  arranged  so  as  to 
be  easily  removed  for  cleaning,  as  shown  at  Fig.  28. 

HORIZONTAL    AS    COMPARED    WITH    THE    VERTICAL 
TYPE  OF  OIL  ENGINES. 

THE  accessibility  of  the  piston  with  the  horizontal 
engine  is  considered  a  great  advantage.  The  piston 
can  always  be  seen  and  can  be  drawn  out  of  the  cylin- 
der and  cleaned  and  replaced  with  ease  in  this  style  of 
engine,  whereas  in  a  vertical  engine  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  the  cylinder  cover,  and  perhaps  other  parts,  to 
gain  access  to  the  piston,  and  also  it  is  necessary  to 
have  sufficient  head  room  above  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
for  chain-block  to  lift  the  piston  and  connecting-rod. 
The  lubrication  of  the  piston  is  also  considered  more 
effective  in  the  horizontal  than  in  the  vertical  type  of 
engine.  Furthermore,  the  connecting-rod  is  more  ac- 
cessible for  adjustment  both  at  the  crank-pin  end  and 
at  the  piston  end  in  the  horizontal  type.  This  difficulty, 
however,  has  been  overcome  by  arranging  a  removable 
plug  in  the  cylinder  casing,  which  when  taken  out 
allows  access  for  adjustment  to  the  piston  end  of  the 
connecting-rod.  European  designers  seem  much  in 
favor  of  the  horizontal  type  of  engines,  and  although 
some  leading  makers  build  the  vertical  type  of  engines, 
yet  the  greater  number  would  appear  to  be  made  of  the 
horizontal  type. 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES.  51 

VERTICAL  ENGINES  for  situations  in  buildings  where 
space  is  restricted  and  where  sufficient  head  room  is 
available  have  the  great  advantage  of  occupying  less 
floor  space  than  the  horizontal  type.  The  mechanical 
efficiency  of  a  vertical  engine  is  somewhat  greater, 
the  friction  of  the  piston  being  less  than  in  the  hori- 
zontal type  of  engine. 

The  vertical  type  for  some  special  purposes  can,  of 
course,  only  be  used,  but  for  ordinary  uses  the  horizon- 
tal type  of  engine  at  present  seems  to  be  most  in  favor, 
one  consideration  being  the  difficulty  of  suitably  ar- 
ranging the  vaporizing  and  spraying  details  in  the 
vertical  type  of  engine,  which  are  usually  placed 
close  to  the  cylinder,  and  are,  therefore,  not  so  fully 
under  the  control  of  the  attendant  as  in  the  horizontal 
type. 

TWO-CYLINDER  ENGINES. — Objection  is  sometimes 
made  against  two-cylinder  oil  engines  because 
of  the  increased  number  of  working  parts,  which 
may  possibly  become  deranged,  and  also  be- 
cause of  the  exact  adjustments  which  are  considered 
necessary. 

The  oil-supplying  apparatus  and  all  the  mechan- 
ism required  with  a  single-cylinder  engine  has  to  be 
duplicated  with  the  two-cylinder  type.  In  order  that 
the  work  and  wear  on  all  crank-shaft  and  connecting- 
rod  bearings  may  be  exactly  similar  the  same  explosive 
pressures  must  be  evolved  in~  each  cylinder.  This 
necessitates  close  adjustment  of  the  vapor  supply.  The 
governing  mechanism  (where  one  governor  controls 
two  different  oil-supply  devices)  also  requires  fine  ad- 


OIL    ENGINES. 


justment,  and  provision  has  to  be  made  for  adjusting 
lost  motion  due  to  wear. 


FIG.  29. 
The  two-cylinder    engine,  however,  has    many    ad- 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  53 

vantages.  In  the  first  place,  it  receives  an  impulse  each 
revolution  of  the  crank-shaft,  and  consequently  the 
energy  of  the  fly-wheel  is  only  required  to  maintain 
the  normal  speed  of  the  crank-shaft  during  half  a 
revolution,  instead  of  the  three  strokes  as  required  in 
the  single-cylinder  type.  To  obtain  relatively  the  same 
power  as  with" one  large  cylinder,  the  two  smaller  cylin- 
ders cause  less  vibration  at  the  foundation.  The 
efficiency,  however,  of  the  two  small  cylinders  is  re- 
duced as  compared  with  the  one  large  cylinder,  on 
account  of  the  increased  surface  of  cylinder  cooling 
space. 

The  two-cylinder  engine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29,  has 
the  oil-supply  pump  actuated  from  the  crank-shaft 
instead  of,  as  is  usual,  from  the  cam-shaft,  an  injection 
of  oil  thus  being  given  at  each  revolution.  The  oil- 
supply  pipe  leading  to  each  cylinder  or  vaporizer  is 
fitted  with  check-valves,  which  are  alternately  opened 
by  the  pressure  of  the  pump,  being  otherwise  held 
closed  by  the  pressure  of  compression  and  of  explosion 
alternately  in  each  cylinder.* 


ERECTING  AND  ASSEMBLING  OF  OIL  ENGINES. 

The  following  remarks  relating  to  the  erection  of  oil 
engines  contain  a  few  hints  on  important  points  of 
this  work,  the  information  being  intended  for  those 

*  This  method  of  fuel  injection  forms  the  subject-matter 
of  U.  S.  patent  650,583,  granted  to  the  writer  May  29,  1900. 


54 


OIL    ENGINES. 


readers  not  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  assembling  of 
explosive  engines  to  be  cognizant  of  the  parts  requiring 
careful  handling  and  accurate  workmanship. 

BEARINGS. — In  scraping  in  the  crank-shaft  bearings 
of  horizontal  engines  the  shaft  must  bear  perfectly  on 
that  part  of  the  bearings  as  shown  in  Fig.  30,  marked 


FIG.  30. 

A,  the  greater  pressure  being  on  the  part  of  the 
bearing  which  is  between  the  centre  line  of  engine 
drawn  through  the  cylinder  and  the  part  through 
which  the  vertical  centre  line  of  fly-wheel  is  drawn. 
A  slight  play  of  about  1-64"  can  be  given  to  the  crank- 
shaft' sideways  in  the  bearings  in  smaller-sized  engines, 
and  1-32  of  an  inch  in  the  larger  sizes  is  recommended. 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  55 

In  vertical  engines  the  bearings  receive  both  the 
pressure  of  explosion  and  the  pressure  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  fly-wheels  in  the  same  part,  and  these 
bearings  require  the  same  care  at  those  points  in  the 
lower  half  of  the  bearing — namely,  about  45°  each  side 
of  the  centre  line  drawn  vertically  through  the  cylinder 
and  crank-shaft.  The  bearing  surfaces  of  the  caps  and 
of  that  part  where  the  pressure  is  not  so  great  do.  not 
require  such  careful  scraping  as  those  parts  where  the 
pressure  is  greater. 

PISTON  AND  PISTON-RINGS. — The  fitting  of  piston 
and  piston-rings  is  very  important  and  requires  accu- 
rate workmanship.  The  cylinder  and  piston  are 
machined  to  standard  ring  and  gauge,  one-thousandth 
per  inch  diameter  of  cylinder  play  being  allowed.  The 
metal  of  the  piston  not  being  of  uniform  thickness 
after  machining  may  slightly  lose  its  shape,  and  some- 
times requires  slight  hand-filing  when  being  fitted  to 
the  cylinder.  The  piston  without  rings  can  be  moved 
easily  up  and  down  inside  the  cylinder.  If  necessary 
the  piston  should  be  eased  slightly  by  hand  on  the 
sides,  being  left  a  good  and  close  fit  at  the  top  and 
bottom  bearing  in  horizontal  engines.  The  sides 
should  not  rub  hard  in  any  part.  The  piston,  if  the 
rings  are  in  place,  can  be  fitted  to  the  cylinder  from 
the  back  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  can  be  moved  around 
the  front  end,  being  inserted  into  cylinder  as  far  as 
the  rings. 

THE  DISTANCE-PIECES  or  junk-rings  should  not  touch 
the  sides  of  the  cylinder,  the  bearing  of  the  piston  be- 
ing- only  on  the  trunk  of  the  piston  itself.  The  front 


50  OIL   ENGINES. 

part  of  the  piston  can  also  be  bevelled  for  £"  in  length, 
1-32"  in  diameter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

THE  PISTON-RINGS,  if  made  as  in  Fig.  15,  should 
have  in  the  smaller  sizes  1-32"  play,  in  the  larger  sizes 
1-16",  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  31.  This  space  allows 
for  expansion  when  the  ring  becomes  heated  in  work- 
ing. It  is  advantageous  to  insert  dowel-pins  in  the 
piston  grooves  to  maintain  the  rings  in  the  same  posi- 
tion, so  that  the  space  in  each  ring  is  out  of  line  with 
that  in  the  following  ring,  as  also  shown  in  Fig.  31. 


\ 


Jl 


FIG.  31. 


THE  PISTON  is  made  in  one  piece,  the  rings  being 
sprung  on  over  the  junk-rings.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  with  oil  engines  greater  heat  is  evolved  in 
the  cylinder  than  in  steam  engines.  Consequently  the 
slightest  play  is  allowed  to  the  piston-rings  at  flie  sides, 
and  are,  therefore,  not  made  so  tight  a  fit  as  in  steam- 
engine  practice. 

THE  CONNECTING-ROD  BEARINGS  at  piston  end  are 


ON   DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  57 

scraped  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  should  be  allowed 
slight  play  sideways  on  the  gudgeon-pin.  In  smaller- 
sized  engines  1-64"  can  be  allowed,  this  amount  being 
slightly  increased  in  the  larger-sized  engines.  The 
crank-pin  bearing  of  the  connecting-rod  is  usually 
allowed  a  very  slight  play  sideways  also. 

THE  AIR  AND  EXHAUST  VALVES  should  not  be  a 
very  close  fit  in  their  guides.  If  the  fit  in  these  guides 
is  made  too  close  when  the  valve-box  becomes  heated 
the  consequent  expansion  may  cause  the  valve-stem  to 
stick  in  the  guides,  and  leakage  of  the  valve  will  result. 

The  valve-seats  are  by  some  considered  best  left 
sharp,  being  not  more  than  1-32"  wide  before  grinding. 

THE  WATER-JACKETS  of  cylinder  or  valve-boxes 
should  be  all  tested  by  hydraulic  pressure  to  at  least 
1 20  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch  before  the  piston  is 
put  into  the  cylinder. 

THE  FLY-WHEELS  require  careful  keying  onto  crank- 
shaft. If  the  keys  are  not  a  good  fit  and  not  driven 
home  tight  the  engine  may  knock  when  running.  Two 
keys  in  larger-sized  engines  are  usually  supplied,  one 
being  a  sunk  key,  which  is  fitted  to  keyway  in  recessed 
shaft  as  well  as  to  the  keyway  cut  in  the  fly-wheel  hub, 
the  second  key  being  only  recessed  in  the  fly-wheel 
and  being  concave  on  the  lower  side  to  fit  the  shaft. 

OIL-SUPPLY  PIPES  which  have  to  withstand  pres- 
sure should  have  the  fittings  "  sweated"  on,  the  unions 
being  screwed  into  place -on  the  brass  or  copper  pipe 
while  the  solder  is  still  in  a  liquid  state. 

CYLINDERS  made  of  two  or  more  parts  require  the 
joints  of  internal  sleeve  to  be  made  with  great  care. 


58  OIL   ENGINES. 

Asbestos  or  a  copper  ring  is  used  to  make  this  joint ; 
sometimes  wire  gauze  with  asbestos  is  used,  which  has 
been  found  to  give  very  good  results. 

[Tables    giving  the  Calorific  Values  of  Oils,  etc.,  will  be 
found  at  end  of  book.] 


CHAPTER  III. 
TESTING    ENGINES. 

THE  chief  object  in  testing  explosive  engines  at  the 
factory  is  to  ascertain  that,  in  actual  working  at  dif- 
ferent loads,  the  several  adjustments  are  correct.  In 
the  steam  engine  a  physical  process  is  completed,  re- 
quiring only  the  inlet,  expansion,  and  the  outlet  of  the 
steam  to  and  from  the  cylinder,  whereas  in  the  oil 
engine  a  chemical  process  is  gone  through  consisting 
of  the  introduction  of  the  proper  mixture  of  vaporized 
oil  and  air  into  the  cylinder,  the  ignition  of  this  ex- 
plosive mixture  and  the  consequent  combustion.  All 
this  must  be  accomplished  before  the  piston  receives  an 
impulse.  In  order,  therefore,  that  the  best  results 
be  obtained,  the  different  mechanisms  controlling  these 
processes  are  each  set,  and  record  of  their  performance 
during  the  test  is  taken  with  the  indicator,  which  results 
are  again  verified  by  some  form  of  brake  attached  to 
the  fly-wheels  or  pulley  of  the  engine,  and  are  further 
checked  in  an  oil  engine  by  the  record  of  the  amount 
of  oil  which  is  consumed  for  the  power  developed. 
Where  more  detailed  tests  are  required,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  exhaust  gases,  the  amount  of  air  consumed 
in  the  cylinder,  its  temperature  and  barometrical  pres- 


6o 


OIL   ENGINES. 


sure,  together  with  the  amount  of  cooling  water  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  cylinder  to  the  required  temperature, 
are  each  noted  and  recorded.  When  the  test  is  made 
with  a  new  engine,  it  should  be  first  started  up  and  run 
without  anv  load  for  a  short  time.  The  cams  are  set  as 


FIG.  32. 

shown  in  diagram,  Fig.  32,  for  engines  having  both  air 
and  exhaust  valves  actuated  from  the  crank-shaft. 
The  air-valve  closes,  as  shown,  just  after  the  crank-pin 
has  passed  the  out  centre,  the  exhaust-valve  opening  at 
about  85  per  cent,  of  the  full  stroke  and  closing  just 


TESTING    ENGINES.  6l 

after  the  air-valve  has  opened.  Where  the  air-inlet 
valve  is  automatic  the  exhaust-cam  only  is  set,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram,  and  the  air-valve  spring  should 
be  adjusted  so  that  the  incoming  air  is  not  choked  in 
passing  the  valve  during  the  suction  stroke. 

The  oil-pipes  leading  to  the  vaporizer  or  sprayer 
should  be  well  washed  before  starting  the  engine,  as 
with  a  new  engine  grit  and  filings  may  get  into  the 
pipes,  and  when  the  engine  is  started  the  oil-valves  and 
valve-seats  may  be  damaged.  The  oil-filter  also  must 
be  in  proper  shape  and  clean,  so  that  the  oil  can  flow 
freely  to  the  oil-pipe. 

After  the  vaporizer  and  igniter  has  been  well 
heated  a  little  oil  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  vapor- 
izer or  combustion  chamber;  then  the  fly-wheels  can 
be  turned  forward  a  few  times,  after  which  the  engine 
should  start  freely.  The  method  of  starting  the  differ- 
ent types  of  engines  is  explained  in  detail  in  Chap- 
ter VII.  An  engine  is  sometimes  found  difficult  to 
start  the  first  time  owing  to  some  defect  in  the  castings 
or  workmanship,  and  if  it  fails  to  start,  the  engine 
should  be  examined  in  detail  to  ascertain  the  cause. 

First  test  the  oil-inlet  or  spraying  device  by  hand; 
then  test  the  pressure  of  compression  in  the  cylinder 
by  turning  the  fly-wheels  backward.  The  relief-cam 
being  out  of  action,  it  should  not  be  possible  with  full 
compression  to  turn  the  fly-wheel  past  the  back  centre. 
If  the  compression  is  so  slight  that  the  pressure  in  the 
cylinder  can  be  overcome  and  the  fly-wheel  turned 
during  the  compression  period  by  hand,  then  either 
the  piston-rings  are  leaking  or  there  is  leakage  past 


TESTING    ENGINES.  63 

the  air  and  exhaust  valves  or  through  some  of  the 
joints  or  gaskets.  Air  and  exhaust  valves  and  piston- 
rings  should  be  examined,  and  any  appearance  of  leak- 
age remedied  by  refitting  the  piston-rings,  as  already 
explained  in  Chapter  II.,  and  the  valves,  if  necessary, 
should  be  reground  in.  New  engines  also  fail  to  start 
at  times  by  reason  of  the  leakage  of  water  from  the 
cooling  jacket  into  the  cylinder  owing  to  faulty  gas- 
kets or  flaws  in  the  castings.  This  leakage  of  water 
may  sometimes  be  ascertained  by  failure  to  obtain  an 
explosion  in  the  combustion  chamber  when  all  condi- 
tions in  the  cylinder  and  vaporizer  are  apparently  in 
good  order  for  the  engine  to  start  properly.  If  leakage 
of  water  is  suspected  but  cannot  be  detected  in  this 
way,  the  water-pressure  pump  should  be  attached  and 
the  water-jackets  tested  to  a  pressure  of  120  Ibs.  The 
crank-shaft  and  other  bearings  require  careful  oiling 
at  first,  and  full  lubrication  should  be  given  to  the 
piston ;  otherwise  it  may,  perhaps,  work  dry  and  cut 
the  cylinder. 

After  working  a  few  hours,  the  piston  should  be 
withdrawn  and  examined ;  any  hard  places  on  the  sides 
should  be  eased  either  by  careful  hand  filing  or  other- 
wise. The  junk-rings  (or  distance-pieces  between  the 
rings)  should  be  eased  if  necessary,  so  that  they  do  not 
work  hard  on  the  cylinder.  The  full  bearing  of  the 
piston  should  be  from  about  \"  from  rings  forward  to 
within  |"  of  the  front  end,  as  already  explained  in 
Chapter  II. 

The  terms  "  brake,"  or-  "  developed,"  or  "  actual" 
or  "  effective"  H.  P.,  are  synonymous,  and  are  used 


64  OIL    ENGINES. 

to  signify  the  power  which  an  engine  is  capable  of 
delivering  at  the  fly-wheel  or  belt-pulley.  This  power 
is  variously  designated,  and  here  we  shall  use  the  ab- 
breviation B.  H.  P.  to  express  it.  The  indicated  H.  P. 
represents  the  whole  power  developed  by  combustion 
in  the  cylinder,  but  it  is  not  considered  such  a  reliable 
method  of  measuring  the  power  of  explosive  engines 
as  that  of  the  dynamometer  or  brake,  because  the  in- 
dicator-card only  gives  the  power  developed  by  one  or 
more  explosions,  whereas  the  brake  can  be  applied  for 
any  length  of  time  and  shows  the  average  performance 
of  the  engine  for  a  longer  period  of  time. 

Fig.  33  illustrates  the  engine  as  arranged  for  testing 
in  the  factory.  The  fuel  tank  shown  at  the  left  hand  is 
placed  there  for  the  purpose  of  running  the  oil-con- 
sumption test.  The  fuel  pump  is  connected  tempo- 
rarily to  this  tank  instead  of  taking  its  supply  of  oil 
from  the  tank  in  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  indicator 
is  also  shown  in  place  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The 
device  for  reducing  the  stroke  of  the  crank  to  suitable 
dimensions  for  the  indicator  is  also  shown  in  place 
bolted  to  the  bed-plate  of  the  engine.  The  brake  con- 
sists of  rope  \"  thick,  with  wooden  guides  with  bal- 
ances at  each  extremity.  The  upper  balance  is  sus- 
pended by  adjustable  hook  suitably  arranged  for  alter- 
ing the  load  on  the  brake. 

Various  kinds  of  dynamometer  brakes  are  used  for 
testing ;  that  shown  in  Fig.  33  is  considered  by  the 
writer  as  being  satisfactory.  The  brake  should  be 
attached  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  the  load  being 
taken  as  the  number  of  pounds  shown  on  the  upper 


TESTING    ENGINES. 


65 


scale  less  those  shown  on  the  lower  scale.     Brake  or 
actual  H.  P.  is  calculated  thus : 


B.  H.  P. 


IV  X  C  X  N 
33,000 


W  =  net  load  in  pounds. 

C  =  circumference  of  wheel. 

N  —  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 


FIG.  34- 

The  circumference  of  the  wheel  should  be  measured 
at  the  centre  of  the  rope,  thus  allowing  for  half  the 
rope  thickness. 

INDICATORS. — Fig.  34  shows  the  American  Thomp- 
son Improved  Indicator  with  J"  area  piston. 


66  OIL    ENGINES. 

THE  INDICATOR  is  attached  to  the  cylinder  by  first 
screwing  into  the  cylinder  the  indicator  cock,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  340,  to  which  the  indicator  is  applied  in  the 
ordinary  way. 

The  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  engine  must  be  re- 
duced to  suit  the  dimensions  of  the  diagram,  which  is 


FIG.  34a. 

usually  about  3"  long.     This  is  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  a  device,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35. 
Indicated  H.  P.  is  calculated  thus : 


PLAE 
I.H.P.=- 

33,000 


P  =  mean  effective  pressure  in  Ibs. 

L  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet. 

A  =  area  in  inches  of  piston. 

E  =  number  of  explosions  per  minute. 


TESTING    ENGINES.  67 

The  M.  E.  P.  of  indicator-card  is  obtained  by  the 
use  of  the  planimeter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  or  by  meas- 
uring the  card  by  scale  and  taking  the  average  pres- 
sure. 

The  illustration    (Fig.   36)    shows   the   design   and 


FIG.  35. 

arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  Crosby  gas-engine  in- 
dicator. The  cylinder  proper  is  that  in  which  the 
movement  of  the  piston  takes  place.  The  piston  is 
formed  from  a  solid  piece  of  tool  steel,  and  is  hardened 
to  prevent  any  reduction  of  its  area  by  wearing.  Shal- 


68 


OIL   ENGINES. 


low  channels  in  its  outer  surface  provide  an  air  pack- 
ing, and  the  moisture  and  oil  which  they  retain  act  as 
lubricants,  and  prevent  undue  leakage  by  the  piston. 


The  piston  is  threaded  inside  to  receive  the  lower 
end  of  the  piston-rod  and  has  a  longitudinal  slot 
which  permits  the  bottom  part  of  the  spring  with 


TESTING   ENGINES.  69 

its  bead  to  drop  on  to  a  concave  bearing  in  the  upper 
end  of  the  piston-screw,  which  is  closely  threaded 
into  the  lower  part  of  the  socket;  the  head  of  this 
screw  is  hexagonal,  and  may  be  turned  with  a  hollow 
wrench. 

The  swivel-head  is  threaded  on  its  lower  half  to 
screw  into  the  piston-rod  more  or  less  according  to  the 
required  height  of  the  atmospheric  line  on  the  diagram. 
Its  head  is  pivoted  to  the  piston-rod  link  of  the  pencil 
mechanism.  The  pencil  mechanism  is  designed  to 
eliminate  as  far  as  possible  the  effect  of  momentum, 
which  is  especially  troublesome  in  high-speed  work. 
The  movement  of  the  spring  throughout  its  range  bears 
a  constant  ratio  to  the  force  applied,  and  the  amount  of 
this  movement  is  multiplied  six  times  at  the  pencil 
point. 

SPRINGS. — In  order  to  obtain  a  correct  diagram,  the 
height  of  the  pencil  of  the  indicator  must  exactly 
represent  in  pounds  per  square  inch  the  pressure  on 
the  piston  of  the  oil  engine  at  every  point  of  the  stroke ; 
and  the  velocity  of  the  surface  of  the  drum  must  bear 
at  every  instant  a  constant  ratio  to  the  velocity  of  the 
engine  piston. 

THE  PISTON  SPRING  is  made  of  a  single  piece  of 
spring  steel  wire,  wound  from  the  middle  into  a  double 
coil,  the  spiral  ends  of  which  are  screwed  into  a  brass 
head  having  four  radial  wings  to  hold  them  securely 
in  place ;  80  to  200  Ib.  spring  is  a  suitable  pressure 
for  this  work. 

This  type  of  indicator  is-  ordinarily  made  with  a 
drum  one  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter,  this  being 


70  OIL    ENGINES. 

the  correct  size  for  high-speed  work,  and  answering 
equally  well  for  low  speeds. 

To  remove  the  piston  and  spring,  unscrew  the  cap ; 
then  take  hold  of  the  sleeve  and  lift  all  the  connected 
parts  free  from  the  cylinder.  This  gives  access  to  all 
the  parts  to  clean  and  oil  them. 

To  change  the  location  of  the  atmospheric  line  of 
the  diagram. — First,  unscrew  the  cap  and  lift  the 
sleeve,  with  its  connections,  from  the  cylinder ;  then 
turn  the  piston  and  connected  parts  toward  the  left, 
and  the  pencil  point  will  be  raised,  or  to  the  right  and 
it  will  be  lowered.  One  complete  revolution  of  the 
piston  will  raise  or  lower  the  pencil  point  -J",  and  this 
should  be  the  guide  for  whatever  amount  of  elevation 
or  depression  of  the  atmospheric  line  is  neede.d. 

To  change  to  a  left-hand  instrument. — If  it  is  desired 
to  make  this  change-:  First,  remove  the  drum,  and  then 
with  the  hollow  wrench  remove  the  hexagonal  stop 
screw  in  the  drum  base,  and  screw  it  into  the  vacant 
hole  marked  L  ;  next,  reverse  the  position  of  the  adjust- 
ing handle  in  the  arm ;  also,  the  position  of  the  metallic 
point  in  the  pencil  lever;  then  replace  the  drum,  and 
the  change  from  right  to  left  will  be  completed. 

The  tension  on  the  drum  spring  may  be  increased  or 
diminished  according  to  the  speed  of  the  engine  on 
which  the  instrument  is  to  be  used,  as  follows:  Re- 
move the  drum  by  a  straight  upward  pull ;  then  raise 
the  head  of  the  spring  above  the  square  part  of  the 
spindle,  and  turn  it  to  the  right  for  more  or  to  the  left 
for  less  tension,  as  required ;  then  replace  the  head  on 
the  spindle. 


TESTING    ENGINES.  ?! 

Before  attaching  the  indicator  to  an  engine,  allow  air 
to  blow  freely  through  pipes  and  cock  to  remove  any 
particles  of  dust  or  grit  that  may  have  lodged  in  them. 

The  indicator  should  be  attached  close  to  the  cylin- 
der whenever  practicable,  especially  on  high-speed  en- 
gines. If  pipes  must  be  used  they  should  not  be  smaller 
than  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  as  short  and  direct 
as  possible. 

The  indicator  can  be  used  in  a  horizontal  position, 
but  it  is  more  convenient  to  take  diagrams  when  it  is 
in  a  vertical  position,  and  this  can  generally  be  ob- 
tained, when  attaching  to  a  vertical  engine,  by  using  a 
short  pipe  with  a  quarter  upward  bend. 

The  motion  of  the  paper  drum  may  be  derived  from 
any  part  of  the  engine,  which  has  a  movement  coinci- 
dent with  that  of  the  piston.  In  general  practice  and 
in  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  piston  itself  is  chosen 
as  being  the  most  reliable  and  convenient. 

When  the  indicator  is  in  position  and  the  cord-drum 
or  other  reducing  motion  is  correctly  placed,  it  is  next 
necessary  to  adjust  the  length  of  the  cord,  so  that  the 
drum  will  clear  the  stops  at  each  extreme  of  its  rota- 
tion. The  engine  should  be  allowed  to  run  for  a  few 
minutes  to  heat  up  before  taking  a  diagram.  The  at- 
mospheric line  should  be  drawn  by  hand,  preferably 
after  the  diagram  has  been  taken  and  when  the  instru- 
ment is  heated  up ;  the  card  is  then  taken  with  full- 
rated  load  on  the  brake.  It  is  well  to  allow  the  pencil 
to  go  several  times  over  the  paper  so  as  to  procure 
a  card  showing  several  explosions,  and  thus  the  aver- 
age pressure  can  be  taken. 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  pressure  of  the  pencil  on  the  paper  can  be  ad- 
justed by  screwing  the  handle  in  or  out,  so  that  when  it 
strikes  the  stop  there  will  be  just  enough  pressure  on 
the  pencil  to  give  a  distinct  fine  line.  The  line  should 


FIG.  37- 


not  be  heavy,  as  the  friction  necessary  to  draw  such  a 
line  is  sufficient  to  cause  errors  in  the  diagram. 

THE  PLANIMETER  or  averaging  instrument  is  shown 
at  Fig.  37.  No.  i  planimeter  is  the  simplest  form  of  the 
instrument,  having  but  one  wheel,  and  is  designed  to 
measure  areas  in  square  inches  and  decimals  of  a 


TESTING   ENGINES.  73 

square  inch.  The  figures  on  the  roller  wheei  D  repre- 
sent units,  the  graduations  tenths,  and  the  vernier  E 
gives  the  hundredihs.  F  is  the  tracer  and  P  is  the 
pivot. 

Fig.  37  represents  the  No.  2  planimeter,  which  is 
the  same  as  the  No.  I,  with  the  addition  of  a  counting 
disc  G,  the  figures  on  which  represent  tens  and  mark 
complete  revolutions  of  the  roller-wheel.  By  this 
means  areas  greater  than  ten  square  inches  can  be 
measured  with  facility.  The  result  is  given  in  square 
inches  and  decimals,  and  the  reading  from  the  roller 
wheel  and  vernier  is  the  same  as  with  No.  I. 

Fig.  37  represents  the  No.  3  planimeter,  which  dif- 
fers somewhat  in  design  from  the  two  previously  de- 
scribed. It  is  capable  of  measuring  larger  areas,  and 
by  means  of  the  adjustable  arm  A  giving  the  results  in 
various  denominations  of  value,  such  as  square  deci- 
meters, square  feet  and  square  inches ;  also  of  giving 
the  average  height  of  an  indicator  diagram  in  fortieths 
of  an  inch,  which  makes  it  a  very  useful  instrument  in 
connection  with  indicator  work. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  MEASURING  AN  INDICATOR  DIAGRAM 

WITH  A  NO.   I  OR  NO.  2  PLANIMETER. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  flat,  even,  unglazed 
surface  for  the  roller  wheel  to  travel  upon.  A  sheet  of 
dull-finished  cardboard  serves  the  purpose  very  well. 
Set  the  weight  in  position  on  the  pivot  end  of  the  bar 
P,  and  after  placing  the  instrument  and  the  diagram 


74 


OIL    ENGINES. 


in  about  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  yja,  press  down  the 
needle  point  so  that  it  will  hold  its  place,  set  the  tracer ; 
then  at  any  given  point  in  the  outline  of  the  diagram, 
as  at  F,  adjust  the  roller  wheel  to  zero.  Now  fol- 
low the  outline  of  the  diagram  carefully  with  the  tracer 


FIG.  370. 

point,  moving  it  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow, 
or  that  of  the  hands  of  a  watch,  until  it  returns  to  the 
point  of  beginning.  The  result  may  then  be  read  as 
follows :  Suppose  we  find  that  the  largest  figure  on 
the  roller  wheel  D  that  has  passed  by  zero  on  the  ver- 
nier E  to  be  2  (units)  and  the  number  of  graduations 
that  have  also  passed  zero  on  the  vernier  to  be  4 


TESTING    ENGINES.  75 

(tenths),  and  the  number  of  graduation  on  the  vernier 
which  exactly  coincides  with  the  graduation  on  the 
wheel  to  be  8  (hundredths),  then  we  have  2.48  square 
inches  as  the  area  of  the  diagram.  Divide  this  by  the 
length  of  the  diagram,  which  we  will  call  3  inches,  and 
we  have  .8266  inch  as  the  average  height  of  the  dia- 
gram. Multiply  this  by  the  scale  of  the  spring  used  in 
taking  the  diagram,  which  in  this  case  is  40,  and  we 
have  33.06  pounds  as  the  mean  effective  pressure  per 
square  inch  on  the  piston  of  the  engine. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  THE  No.  3  PLANIMETER. 

No.  3  planimeter  is  somewhat  differently  manipu- 
lated, although  the  same  general  principle  obtains. 
The  figures  on  the  wheels  may  represent  different 
quantities  and  values,  according  to  the  particular  ad- 
justment of  the  sliding  arm  A.  If  it  is  desired  merely 
to  find  the  area  in  square  inches  of  an  indicator  dia- 
gram, set  the  sliding  arm  so  that  the  lo-square-inch 
mark  will  exactly  coincide  with  the  vertical  mark  on 
the  inner  end  of  the  sleeve  H  at  K.  The  sliding  arm  is 
released  or  made  fast  by  means  of  the  set-screw  5\ 

With  the  wheels  at  zero  and  the  planimeter  and  dia- 
gram in  the  proper  position,  trace  the  outline  carefully 
and  read  the  result  from  the  roller  wheel  and  vernier, 
the  same  as  directed  for  the  No.  i  and  No.  2  instru- 
ments. 

THE  INDICATOR-CARD  shows  what  is  occurring  inside 
the  cylinder  and  combustion  chamber  during  the  differ- 
ent periods  of  the  revolution.  It  gives  a  record  of  the 


76  OIL    ENGINES. 

variations  in  pressure,  and  also  the  exact  points  of  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  valves.  With  the  Otto  or 
Beau  de  Rochas  cycle  the  four  strokes  are  as  follows : 
Suction  (A),  compression  (B),  expansion  (C),  ex- 
haust (D).  The  lines  in  the  diagram  are  correspond- 
ingly lettered  (see  Fig.  38),  and  they  represent  each  of 
these  processes. 


EXHAUST  °" ^          _ATMOS. 

SUCTION  A. 

FIG.  38. 

Fig.  39  shows  a  good  working  diagram,  in  which 
the  mixture  of  air  and  hydrocarbon  gas  is  correct  and 
where  combustion  is  practically  complete.  The  igni- 
tion line  in  this  diagram  is  nearly  perpendicular  to  the 
atmospheric  line,  but  inclines  slightly  toward  the 
right  hand  at  top.  The  diagram  also  shows  the  open- 
ing of  the  exhaust-valve  at  the  proper  time — namely, 
at  85  per  cent,  of  the  stroke.  The  compression  line 
represents  the  proper  pressure,  and  the  air-inlet  and 
exhaust  lines  indicate  correct  proportioned  valves  and 
inlet  and  outlet  passages. 


TESTING    ENGINES. 


77 


In  considering  and  analyzing  diagrams  the  follow- 
ing hints  will  perhaps  be  of  service.  If  the  suction 
line  of  the  diagram  is  shown  below  the  atmospheric 


ATMOS. 


FIG.  39- 


FIG.  40. 

line,  as  in  Fig.  40,  then  the  air-inlet  to  the  cylinder  is 
known  to  be  in  some  way  choked.  Where  the  air-valve 
is  automatic  this  defect  may  be  caused  by  the  valve- 


7  OIL    ENGINES. 

spring  being  too  strong  and  it  accordingly  requires 
weakening ;  or  the  area  of  the  air  suction-pipe,  if  this  is 
used,  may  be  too  small  or  this  connection  may  have  too 
many  elbows  or  bends  in  it,  and  should  be  either  of  in- 
creased diameter  or  the  bends  should  be  eliminated. 
Again,  the  valve  itself  may  have  too  small  an  area,  or 
if  actuated  have  insufficient  lift  (the  proper  lift  of  a 
valve  is  J  of  its  diameter),  or  the  period  of  opening 
of  the  valve  may  not  be  correct,  and  the  setting  of  the 
cams  should  be  carefully  examined,  and,  if  necessary, 
altered  in  accordance  with  the  diagram  of  valve  open- 
ing, as  shown  at  Fig.  32. 

If  the  compression  line  B  shows  insufficient  pres- 
sure of  compression,  this  indicates  leakage,  which  is 
probably  due  either  to  leaky  piston  or  valves.  If  this 
leakage  is  past  the  piston-rings,  the  escaping  air  may 
be  heard  and  the  lubricating  oil  will  be  seen  at  each  ex- 
plosion period  to  be  splashing  and  blown  past  the  rings 
of  the  piston.  If  no  signs  of  piston  leakage  are  noticed, 
then  examine  oil-inlet  air  and  exhaust  valves  and  valve- 
seats  very  carefully ;  also  note  the  various  joints  in  the 
valve-box  and  otherwise  where  leakage  might  possibly 
occur.  In  engines  without  water-jackets  around  the 
valve-box  the  heat  of  the  exhaust  gases  continually 
passing  through  the  valve-chamber  may  sometimes 
cause  the  valve-seats  to  expand  unequally  when  heated, 
and  consequent  leakage  will  occur  when  working. 

If  leakage  is  detected  at  the  valves  they  must  be  re- 
ground,  and  also  any  hard  places  on  the  valve-stems 
or  guides  where  they  become  heated  should  be  eased  so 
that  the  valves  will  work  easily  and  efficiently  when  the 


TESTING    ENGINES.  /9 

seats  and  guides  are  expanded,  and,  perhaps,  slightly 
distorted,  by  the  heat  of  working.  (It  is  understood 
that  these  remarks  refer  to  new  engines  solely.)  With 
some  engines  means  of  increasing  the  compression  by 
movable  plates  on  the  connecting-ro(J  crank-pin  end 
or  other  somewhat  similar  means  are  provided  which 
can  be  changed,  if  necessary,  thus  decreasing  the 


FIG.  41. 

amount  of  clearance  in  the  cylinder.  If  the  piston- 
rings  are  without  leakage  and  they  have  worked  into 
their  proper  bearings  in  the  cylinder,  and  if  all  the 
valves  are  in  perfect  order  and  without  leakage,  and 
still  the  compression  pressure,  as  shown  on  the  diagram 
and  as  already  explained*  requires  increasing,  then  the 
clearance  in  the  cylinder  can  be  slightly  decreased 
where  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  The  vertical  ignition  line 
shows  the  timing  of  the  ignition,  and  also  the  initial 
pressure  of  explosion.  If  this  line  is  as  represented  in 
Fig.  41  the  ignition  is  known  to  be  too  early,  and 
should  be  arranged  to  occur  somewhat  later.  The 


8o 


OIL    ENGINES. 


diagrams  as  shown  in  Fig.  42  has  the  ignition  line  too 

late. 

The  timing  of  the  ignition  is  regulated  as  follows  : 
With    electric    ignition   by    altering   the    period    of 


ATMOS. 


FIG.  42. 


sparking.  Thus,  if  later  ignition  is  required  the  ignit- 
ing device  must  not  be  allowed  to  spark  till  the  crank- 
pin  has  travelled  nearer  to  the  dead  centre.  With  the 
hot-tube  ignition  and  no  timing  valve,  the  length  of  the 


TESTING   ENGINES.  8l 

tube  can  be  changed.  For  example,  to  retard  the 
ignition  the  tube  should  be  lengthened  slightly  and  its 
temperature  somewhat  decreased.  In  engines  where 
neither  of  these  means  of  ignition  is  used,  but  where 
the  ignition  is  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  vaporizer- 
chamber  or  somewhat  similar  device,  the  timing  of  the 
ignition  is  controlled  by  the  heat  of  the  vaporizer- 
chamber  and  also  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  process 
of  compression.  Where  the  ignition  in  this  case  is  to 
be  retarded,  the  compression  should  be  reduced  slightly 
and  the  vaporizer  or  other  igniting  device  maintained 
at  a  less  heat.  The  ignition/  however  actually  caused, 
is  always  influenced  by  the  heat  of  the  cylinder  walls 
and  the  temperature  of  the  incoming  air,  which  corre- 
spondingly increases  or  decreases  the  heat  caused  by 
the  compression  before  explosion  takes  place.  The 
ignition  is  usually  adjusted  when  testing  engines  with 
the  cooling  water  issuing  from  the  cylinder  water- 
jackets  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  130°  Fahr. 

The  expansion  line  is  marked  C,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38. 
This  line  indicates  the  initial  pressure  of  combustion, 
and  it  also  shows  the  developed  pressure  decreasing  as 
the  volume  of  the  cylinder  becomes  greater  with  the 
piston  moving  forward.  The  effective  pressure  devel- 
oped is  measured  from  this  line  to  the  compression 
line,  and  varies  according  to  the  richness  of  the  ex- 
plosive mixture.  When  the  engine  is  in  actual  use 
the  governor  controls  this  pressure  automatically. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  is  greater  in  some  types 
of  engines  than  it  is  in  others,  and  varies,  as  stated  in 
Chapter  II.,  from  40  to  75  Ibs.  The  amount  of  the 


82 


OIL    ENGINES. 


pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  dependent  upon  the  method 
of  vaporization,  upon  the  proper  mixture  of  the  gas 


ATMOS. 


FIG.  43. 


and  air  before  explosion,  and  also  upon  the  pressure 
of  the  compression.  As  in  gas  engines,  the  tendency  in 
oil-engine  practice  is  toward  higher  compression  to 


TESTING    ENGINES.  83 

increase  their  efficiency.  Where  the  mean  effective 
pressure  is  low  the  relative  power  of  the  engine  will, 
of  course,  also  be  reduced.  The  greatest  mean  effective 
pressure  should  be  attained  when  the  oil  is  thoroughly 
vaporized,  is  properly  mixed  with  the  air  and  when 
the  compression  is  as  high  as  practicable  without  pre- 
ignition  taking  place. 

Should  the  exhaust  lines  D  appear  as  in  Fig.  43,  then 
it  is  understood  that  the  discharge  of  the  exhaust  gases 
is  in  some  way  choked ;  this  may  be  caused  by  the  ex- 
haust-valve itself  being  too  small,  or  to  thes periods  of 
the  opening  of  the  valve  being  incorrect.  (See  dia- 
gram, Fig.  32.)  Again,  this  defect  may  be  caused  by 
too  many  sharp  bends,  too  small  diameter  exhaust- 
pipe,  or  possibly  too  long  an  exhaust-pipe.  Theoreti- 
cally no  back  pressure  should  be  allowed  during  the 
exhaust  period,  but  usually  in  practice  a  slight  pres- 
sure of  about  one  pound  is  recorded. 

Each  pound  per  square  inch  of  back  pressure  shown 
by  the  exhaust  line  shows  a  back  pressure  in  the  cylin- 
der, which  is  negative  work  to  be  overcome  by  the 
piston,  and  represents  a  slight  loss  of  power  by  the 
engine. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  indicator  is  in  proper 
condition,  without  any  play  in  the  pencil  arm,  and  that 
the  piston  is  free  and  well  -lubricated.  Lost  motion  in 
the  indicator  may  show  peculiarities  in  the  diagram 
which  to  an  inexperienced  manipulator  may  be  the 
cause  of  trouble. 

TACHOMETERS  (Fig.  44), — These  instruments  have 
been  designed  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  at  a 


84 


OIL    ENGINES. 


glance  the  number  of  revolutions  made  in  a  given  time 
by  rotating  shafts.  Their  construction  is  based  on 
centrifugal  power,  and  they  consist  of  a  case  inside  of 
which  are  mounted  a  pendulum  ring,  in  connection 
with  a  fixed  shaft,  a  sliding  rod  and  an  indicating 


FIG.  44. 

movement.  The  apparatus  is  very  sensitive,  ?nd  will 
indicate  the  slightest  deviation  in  speed. 

PORTABLE  TACHOMETER  (Fig.  440). — This  instru- 
ment is  similar  in  construction  to  the  tachometer  for 
permanent  attachment.  By  applying  it  by  hand  to  the 
centre  of  rotating  shafts,  it  will  instantly  and  correctly 
indicate  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  shaft  per 
minute. 

Fig.  44&  illustrates  a  new  form  of  speed  counter,  the 


TESTING    ENGINES. 


invention  of  Mr.  A.  J.  Hill,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  which, 
besides  counting,  also  registers  the  number  of  revolu- 


FIG. 


tions  of  the  shaft.     This  is  accomplished  by  simply 
punching   a   continuous   slip   of   paper,   as   shown   in 


44b. 

Fig.  44<r.     The  watch  mechanism  in  the  device  also 
periodically  records  a  detent  in  the  paper  slip,  thus 


marking  the  periods  of  time  while  the  shaft  actuates 
the  mechanism  of  the  device,  causing  a  detent  for  each 


86  OIL    ENGINES. 

revolution.  The  writer  has  not  yet  had  an  opportunity 
of  testing  this  interesting  and  useful  invention. 

When  the  full  brake  H.  P.  is  obtained,  which  should 
be  developed  for  at  least  a  period  of  one  hour  con- 
tinuously, the  consumption  fuel  test  is  made. 

THE  MECHANICAL  EFFICIENCY  of  oil  engines,  as 
shown  by  records  of  various  tests,  should  be  from  80 
per  cent,  to  88  per  cent.,  although  the  efficiency  is 
much  less  than  this  when  the  engine  has  been  working 
only  a  short  time  and  before  the  crank-shaft  and  other 
bearings  and  piston  are  worn  in.  To  ascertain  the 
mechanical  efficiency  of  an  engine,  first  calculate  the 
I.  H.  P.,  as  already  described ;  then  figure  the  B.  H.  P., 
as  already  shown.  Then  : 

B.  H.  P. 
Mechanical  efficiency  =• — 

T.  H.  P. 

For  instance :  If  the  B.  H.  P.  of  an  engine  —  10  and 
the  I.  H.  P.  ==  12.5, 

10 
Mechanical  efficiency  :=  — 

12-5 
=  80  per  cent. 

THERMAL  EFFICIENCY. — The  ratio  of  the  heat  util- 
ized by  the  engine,  as  shown  by  the  power  (B.  H.  P.) 
developed,  as  compared  with  the  total  heat  contained 
in  the  fuel  absorbed  by  the  engine,  is  known  as  the 
thermal  efficiency.  This  can  be  obtained  by  the  follow- 
ing formula: 

42.63  X  60 

cxx 


TESTING    ENGINES.  87 

C  =  consumption  of  fuel  in  pounds  per  B.  H.  P.  per 

hour. 
X  =  calorific  value  of  the  fuel  per  pound  in  heat 

units. 

The  thermal  efficiency  of  the  oil  engine  is  low  as 
compared  with  the  gas  engine.  The  best  gas-engine 
makers  now  claim  a  thermal  efficiency  for  their  engines 
of  27  per  cent.,  whereas  it  is  believed  the  maximum 
thermal  efficiency  recorded  by  any  oil  engine  now  in 
regular  use  is  18  per  cent. 

The  following  heat  table  shows  the  disposition  of 
heat  in.  oil  engines  as  given  by  Dugeld  Clerk : 

Heat  shown  on  diagrams  per  I.  H.  P. .  .    15.3  per  cent. 

Heat  rejected  in  water-jackets 26.8  per  cent. 

Heat    rejected    in    exhaust    and    other 

losses 57.9  per  cent. 


100  per  cent. 

It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  efficiency, 
though  seemingly  low,  compares  well  with  that  of  the 
steam  engine,  of  which  the  average  recorded  results 
show  about  n  per  cent,  thermal  efficiency. 

FUEL  CONSUMPTION  TEST. — This  is  generally  made 
with  all  new  engines  before  they  leave  the  factory,  and 
is  advantageous  as  a  check  of  the  efficiency  of  the 
engine  as  shown  by  the  indicator  and  the  brake  tests, 
and  this  test  is  also  useful  to  ascertain  the  exact  con- 
sumption of  fuel  by  the  engine  in  actual  operation. 


88  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  oil  is  weighed,  the  amount  being  gauged  by 
weight  of  fuel  rather  than  by  measuring  the  oil.  The 
tank  or  other  receptacle  from  which  the  fuel  is  drawn 
is  first  filled  with  kerosene.  The  tank  is  then  placed 
on  platform  scales,  and  the  weight  is  carefully  taken 
and  time  noted  when  the  engine  is  ready  to  begin  this 
test.  The  full  load  required  is  then  adjusted  on  the 
brake  while  the  engine  is  running  at  its  normal  speed. 

The  oil  can  also  be  measured  by  means  of  a  pointer 
placed  in  the  tank,  the  tank  being  filled  until  the  pointer 
is  just  visible  before  the  engine  is  ready  for  the  test 
to  commence.  The  oil  is  then  weighed  in  a  separate 
vessel,  and  a  quantity  of  the  fuel  is  poured  into  the  test 
tank.  When  the  test  is  completed,  the  oil  is  taken  out 
of  the  tank  until  the  pointer  shows  again  just  as  it  did 
at  the  commencement  of  the  test.  The  weight  of  the 
kerosene  remaining  in  the  vessel  is  deducted  from  the 
whole  weight  as  at  first  recorded,  and  the  difference  is 
the  amount  consumed  by  the  engine.  It  is  usual  to 
continue  this  test  for  at  least  one  hour's  duration.  Dur- 
ing the  consumption  test,  the  load  on  the  brake  and  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute  are  recorded  and  the 
average  brake  horse-power  developed  is  taken.  The 
exact  amount  of  oil  consumed  per  hour  being  also 
known,  the  consumption  of  oil  per  H.  P.  hour  is  simply 
ascertained. 

Light  spring  indicator  diagrams  are  taken  to  ascer- 
tain the  efficiency  of  the  air  and  exhaust  valves,  ports 
and  passages.  ,  That  shown  at  Fig.  45  is  taken  with 
-fa  spring.  The  indicator  must  be  fitted  with  special 
stop  arrangement  to  prevent  the  pencil  going  above 


TESTING    ENGINES.  89 

the  drum  of  the  indicator  when  taking  light  spring 
cards. 

It  is  advantageous  to  have  some  method  of  limiting 
the  supply  of  oil  to  the  vaporizer  arranged  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  engine  from  consuming  an  excess  of  oil  at  any 
time.  This  gauge  should  be  made  immediately  after 
the  consumption  test  has  been  proved  as  satisfactory, 
and  to  avoid  possible  mistake  by  alteration  of  the  oil 
supply.  As  already  described,  if  too  much  oil  enters 


ATMOS. 


SUCTION 

FIG.  45- 

the  vaporiser,  bad  combustion  will  follow  and  carboni- 
zation will,  perhaps,  result,  thus  rendering  the  piston 
sticky  and  gummy,  and  materially  reducing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  engine. 

The  exact  periods  for  the  movements  of  the  valve 
and  cams  should  also  be  clearly  marked  on  the  gearing 
or  elsewhere,  so  that  if  at  any  future  time  the  crank- 
shaft is  taken  out  or  the  gearing  (or  other  mechanism) 
between  the  crank-shaft  and  the  cam-shaft  removed, 


QO  OIL    ENGINES. 

the  relative  position  of  the  crank-shaft  with  the  valve 
mechanism  can  be  readily  ascertained  and  the  exact 
position  of  the  cams  again  found  without  difficulty. 

EXHAUST  GASES. — With  an  oil  engine  it  is  impor- 
tant to  note  the  color  of  the  exhaust  gases,  which  may 
vary  a  little  according  to  the  weather.  Where  com- 
plete combustion  is  taking  place,  the  exhaust  gases  are 
almost,  if  not  entirely,  invisible.  When  the  engine  is 
first  started,  these  gases  will,  perhaps,  be  white,  grad- 
ually getting  bluer. 

If  an  oil  engine  is  working  well  and  if  the  combus- 
tion is  complete,  the  exhaust  gases  will  not  be  seen  but 
only  heard,  and  the  piston  will  also  remain  clean  in 
working. 

TESTING  THE  FLASH  POINT  OF  KEROSENE. — Fig.  460 
shows  apparatus  for  ascertaining  the  "  open  fire"  test 
or  the  temperature  at  which  kerosene  will  flash  or  ex- 
plode. This  device  consists  of  a  small  copper  vessel  in 
which  the  kerosene  is  placed.  This  vessel  is  immersed 
in  a  larger  vessel  containing  water,  which  forms  part 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  apparatus. 

A  thermometer  is  suspended  with  its  lower  part  in 
the  oil.  A  heating  lamp  placed  under  the  receptacle 
containing  the  water  raises  the  temperature  of  both 
water  and  oil  as  required.  A  lighted  taper  is  passed  to 
and  fro  over  the  top  of  the  oil  as  it  becomes  heated. 
When  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  oil  flashes  the  tem- 
perature is  noted,  and  that  is  termed  the  "  flashing 
point"  of  the  oil  thus  tested. 

The  "  Abel"  oil-tester  is  shown  at  Fig.  46^.     This 


TESTING   ENGINES.  QI 

was  originated  by  Sir  Frederick  Abel,  and  hence  its 
name.  The  tests  made  with  this  apparatus  are  those 
known  as  the  "  Abel  closed"  test.  Such  tests  are  recog- 
nized by  the  law  (at  the  present  time)  of  Great  Britain. 


a. 


FIG.  46. 


The  device  consists  of  a  copper  vessel  containing  water 
in  whidi  is  an  air-chamber.  In  the  air-chamber  is 
placed  an  oil-cup  made  of  gun-metal.  This  oil-cup  is 
supplied  with  tight-fitting  lid  and  is  provided  with  gas 


UNIVERSITY 


92  OIL   ENGINES. 

or  oil  lamp  suitably  arranged  to  ignite  the  oil  vapor 
when  required. 

Two  thermometers  are  required,  one  immersed  in 
the  oil  and  the  other  in  the  water,  each  having  a  tight 
joint  around  it. 

The  following  are  the  instructions  for  performing 
this  test :  The  heating  vessel  or  water-bath  is  rilled 
until  the  water  flows  out  at  the  spout  of  the  vessel. 
The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  commencement  of 
the  test  is  130°  Fahrenheit.  The  water  having  been 
raised  to  the  proper  temperature,  the  oil  to  be  tested  is 
poured  into  the  petroleum  cup,  until  the  level  of  the 
liquid  just  reaches  the  point  of  the  gauge  which  is  fixed 
in  the  cup.  If  necessary,  the  samples  to  be  tested  should 
be  cooled  down  to  about  60°.  The  lid  of  the  cup  with 
the  slide  closed  is  then  put  on,  and  the  oil-cup  is  placed 
in  the  water-bath  or  heating  vessel,  the  thermometer  in 
the  lid  of  the  cup  being  adjusted  so  as  to  have  its  bulb 
immersed  in  the  liquid.  .  The  test-lamp  is  then  placed 
in  position  upon  the  lid  of  the  cup,  the  lead  line,  or 
pendulum,  which  has  been  fixed  in  a  convenient  posi- 
tion in  front  of  the  operator,  is  set  in  motion,  and  the 
rise  of  the  thermometer  in  the  petroleum  cup  is 
watched.  When  the  temperature  has  reached  about 
66°  the  operation  of  testing  is  to  be  commenced,  the 
test  flame  being  applied  at  once  for  every  rise  of  I  °  in 
the  following  manner : 

The  slide  is  slowly  drawn  open  while  the  pendulum 
performs  three  oscillations,  and  is  closed  during  the 
fourth  oscillation.  Thus  a  flame  is  made  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  vapor  above  the  oil.  The  temperature 


TESTING   ENGINES.  93 

at  which  the  vapor  flashes  is  noted,  and  is  called  the 
flashing  point  of  the  oil.  If  it  is  desired  to  employ  the 
test  apparatus  to  determine  the  flashing  points  of  oils 
of  very  low  volatility,  the  mode  of  proceeding  is  modi- 
fied as  follows : 

The  air-chamber  which  surrounds  the  cup  is  filled 
with  cold  water,  to  a  depth  of  ij  inches,  and  the  heat- 
ing vessel  or  water-bath  is  filled  with  cold  water.  The 
lamp  is  then  placed  under  the  apparatus  and  kept  there 
during  the  entire  operation.  If  a  very  heavy  oil  is  be- 
ing dealt  with,  the  operation  commences  with  water 
previously  heated  to  120°  instead  of  with  cold  water. 

VISCOSITY  OF  OIL. — It  is  frequently  advantageous  to 
ascertain  the  viscosity  of  different  oils.  The  device 
shown  at  Fig.  4.60  is  manufactured  by  C.  I.  Tagliabue 
especially  for  this  purpose.  The  viscosity  of  an  oil 
with  this  apparatus  is  found  by  noticing  the  number  of 
seconds  required  for  fifty  cubic  centimetres  of  oil  to 
pass  the  open  faucet  or  valve. 

To  test  the  viscosity  of  oil  at  212°  Fahr.  with  this 
apparatus,  first  pour  water  into  the  boiler  through 
opening  A,  unscrew  safety-valve  until  water-gauge 
shows  that  the  boiler  is  full,  open  stop-cock  B,  making 
a  direct  connection  between  the  boiler  and  upper  vessel 
which  surrounds  the  receptacle  in  which  the  oil  to  be 
tested  is  placed.  Suspend  a  thermometer  so  that  its  bulb 
will  be  about  J  inch  from  the  bottom  of  the  oil-bath. 
After  carefully  straining  70  cubic  centimetres  of  the  oil 
to  be  tested,  which  must  be  warmed  in  the  case  of  very 
heavy  oils,  pour  same  "into  the  oil-bath.  Close 


94 


OIL    ENGINES. 


stop-cocks  D  and  E.  Screw  the  extension  F  with 
rubber  hose  attached  into  the  coupling  G,  and  let  the 
open  end  of  the  hose  be  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water, 


FIG.  460. 

which  will  prevent  too  large  a  loss  of  steam.  Place 
lamp  or  Bunsen  burner  under  boiler ;  screw  steel  nipple 
marked  212°  on  to  stop-cock  H ;  the  apparatus  is  then 
ready  to  use.  After  steam  is  generated,  wait  until  the 


TESTING    ENGINES.  95 

thermometer  in  oil-bath  shows  a  temperature  of  from 
209°  to  211°  ;  then  place  the  50  cubic  centimetre  glass 
under  stop-cock  H,  so  that  the  stream  of  oil  strikes  the 
side  of  test-glass,  thereby  preventing  the  forming  of 
air-bubbles ;  and  when  the  thermometer  indicates  its 
highest  point  open  the  faucet  H  simultaneously  with 
the  starting  of  the  timing  watch.  When  the  running 
oil  reaches  the  50  cubic  centimetre  mark  in  the  neck  of 
the  test-glass  the  watch  is  instantly  stopped  and  the 
number  of  seconds  noted. 

To  ascertain  the  viscosity,  multiply  the  number  of 
seconds  by  two,  and  the  result  will  be  the  viscosity  of 
the  oil.  For  example :  If  50  cubic  centimetres  of  oil 
runs  through  in  icij  seconds,  the  viscosity  will  then 
be  203. 

To  test  the  viscosity  of  oils  at  70°  Fahr.  screw  the 
steel  nipple  marked  70  on  to  faucet  H ;  close  stop- 
cock B,  closing  communication  between  boiler  and 
upper  vessel ;  also  close  stop-cock  E.  Fill  upper  vessel 
through  opening  G  with  water  at  a  temperature  as  near 
70°  as  possible,  also  having  the  oil  to  be  tested  at  the 
same  temperature ;  hang  the  thermometer  in  position, 
and  after  stirring  the  oil  thoroughly,  blow  through  rub- 
ber tube  at  D  to  thoroughly  mix  the  water ;  should  the 
thermometer  show  higher  or  lower  than  70°  add  cold 
or  warm  water  until  the  desired  temperature  is  at- 
tained. Then  proceed  as  before  stated. 

[For  tables  of  tests  of  various  oil  engines  made  at  Edin- 
burgh, see  end  of  book.] 


CHAPTER    IV. 

COOLING    WATER-TANKS,    AND    OTHER 
DETAILS. 

WATER  is  always  required  to  keep  the  cylinders  of 
explosive  engines  cool,  and  is  necessitated  by  the  great 
heat  evolved  in  such  engines,  which  heat  would,  if  it 
were  not  carried  away,  prevent  the  proper  working 
of  an  engine  by  too  great  expansion  of  the  piston  and 
by  burning  the  lubricating  oil.  Where  running  water 
from  city  main  is  not  available,  water-tanks  are  used. 
The  engine  water-jackets  are  connected  to  the  tanks 
as  shown  in  Fig.  47.  It  is  important  that  the  water 
piping  rises  all  the  way  from  the  engine  to  the  tanks. 
The  water,  when  tanks  are  used,  circulates  by  gravi- 
tation— that  is,  the  cold  water  being  slightly  heavier 
than  the  hot  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  passes 
from  the  tank  to  the  water-jacket,  and  returns  as  warm 
water  to  the  top  of  the  tank  to  be  cooled  off  and  again 
sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

The  cooling  water-tanks  must  be  of  not  less  capac- 
ity than  70  gallons  of  water  per  brake  H.  P.  of  engine. 
The  tanks  when  installed  should  preferably  be  placed 
in  the  best  location  for  cold  air  to  circulate  around 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND    OTHER    DETAILS.       97 

them,  so  that  the  water  in  the  tanks  may  cool  off  as 
quickly  as  possible. 

Where  an  engine  is  required  to  work  for  more  than 
ten  hours  per  day,  the  tanks  should  be  of  larger  capac- 
ity than  that  above  stated,  or  provision  should  be  made 


DRAIN  COCK 
FIG.  47. 

to  add  cold  water  to  the  tanks  when  the  water  becomes 
heated  above  120°  Fahrenheit. 

The  waste-water  drain-pipe  from  the  tanks  should 
be  arranged  to  allow  the  hot  water  to  run  off  from  the 
top  of  the  tanks  anr1  the  cold-water  inlet-pipe  arranged 
to  enter  near  the  bottom.  The  circulating-water  pipes 
connecting  the  tanks  to  engine  water-jacket  should  be 
large  enough  to  allow  the  -water  to  circulate  freely. 
A  pipe  having  ij"  inside  diameter  is  considered  suit- 


FIG:  48. 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND   OTHER    DETAILS.       99 

able  for  the  smaller  size  of  engines  and  3"  diameter 
pipe  is  sufficient  for  engines  of  25  B.  H.  P.  and  over. 

In  some  installations  cooling  water  is  available,  but 
may  require  pumping  to  the  engine.  In  such  cases  a 
pump  capable  of  delivering  more  than  ten  gallons  per 
brake  H.  P.  of  engine  should  be  used.  This  pump  can 
be  actuated  from  the  cam-shaft  of  engine  as  shown  in 
Fig.  48,  or  from  the  crank-shaft  by  eccentric  in  the 
usual  way.  A  rotary  pump  is  sometimes  used  to  ac- 
celerate the  circulation  of  water  in  hot  climates  with 
the  tank  system  of  cooling  water,  and  can  be  driven  by 
belting  from  the  crank-shaft  of  the  engine.  A  by-pass 
in  the  water-pipes  between  the  suction-pipe  and  the 
discharge-pipe  of  the  water-circulating  pump  is  advan- 
tageous, having  a  regulating  valve  in  the  by-pass.  If 
this  by-pass  is  not  made,  other  means  should  be  ar- 
ranged, so  that  the  supply  of  cooling  water  can  be  regu- 
lated to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  of  the  cylin- 
der of  the  engine — namely,  110°  to  130°  Fahrenheit. 
This  temperature  is  recommended  by  the  makers  of 
several  oil  engines. 

Where  neither  pump  to  lift  and  circulate  cooling 
water  nor  water-tanks  are  necessary  and  where  water 
is  used  from  the  city  water-mains,  f "  inside  diameter 
pipe  is  sufficient  for  small  and  moderate-sized  engines. 
The  larger  size  may  have  i"  diameter  pipe  connections 
to  cylinder. 

In  all  cases,  either  with  tanks,  water-pumps,  or 
where  the  water  is  connected  direct  from  the  city 
water-main,  provision  must  be  made  for  emptying  the 
cylinder  water-jacket  and  all  the  water-pipes  in  time  of 


IOO  OIL    ENGINES. 

frost.  If  the  water  in  the  water-jacket  of  the  cylinder 
should  be  allowed  to  freeze,  the  cylinder  casting  may 
be  cracked,  and  this  may  necessitate  very  expensive  re- 
pairs. • 

Salt  water  can  be  used  for  cooling  the  cylinder.  It 
should,  however,  be  pumped  through  rapidly,  so  as 
not  to  allow  the  formation  of  any  deposit  inside  water- 
jackets.  In  southern  climates  or  where  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  is  above  70°  Fahrenheit,  more  water 
is  required  than  above  stated  to  keep  the  cylinder  (when 
working  at  full  load)  below  130°. 

The  writer  has  tested  such  installations  requiring  30 
gallons  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour,  the  normal  temperature 
of  the  inlet  cooling  water  in  this  case  being  85°  to  90° 
Fahrenheit. 

EXHAUST  SILENCERS. — The  noise  from  the  exhaust 
gases  is  sometimes  considered  to  be  a  great  objection 
to  the  use  of  explosive  engines,  but  this  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  ordinary  cast-iron  exhaust  silenc- 
ing chamber  supplied  with  engine  is  not  designed  to 
entirely  silence  the  exhaust,  but  is  only  regarded  as 
sufficient  to  partly  reduce  this  noise. 

Where  it  is  essential  that  the  exhaust  be  entirely 
silenced,  this  can  be  easily  accomplished  in  the  follow- 
ing way:  A  brick  pit  should  be  built  as  shown  in 
Fig.  49.  The  exhaust-pipe  from  the  engine  is  then 
connected  to  the  bottom  of  this  pit.  The  outlet-pipe 
to  the  atmosphere  is  connected  to  the  top  of  the  pit. 
The  space  inside  the  pit  should  be  filled  with  large 
stones,  as  shown  in  illustration!  These  stones  should 
be  about  six  inches  in  size,  so  that  crevices  are  left 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND    OTHER    DETAILS.     IOI 

between  them  through  which  the  gases  can  penetrate. 
A  drain-pipe  should  be  arranged  to  allow  the  water 
to  flow  out  of  the  pit.  The  stone  or  cast-iron  plate 
covering  the  pit  is  securely  fastened  down  to  the 
masonry. 

With  oil-engine  exhaust  gases  there  may  be  some 


FIG.  49. 


odor.  When  it  is  necessary  that  both  the  noise  and  the 
odor  should  be  done  away  with,  an  exhaust  washer 
should  be  installed  instead  of  the  silencing  pit,  as  al- 
ready described.  This  apparatus  consists  of  a  tank,  to 
which  the  water  is  connected  as  it  issues  from  the 
water-jacket  of  the  engine-cylinder,  or  where  cooling 


IO2 


OIL    ENGINES. 


FIG.  50. 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND    OTHER    DETAILS.     IO3 

tanks  are  used  the  water  should  be  taken  from  the 
main.  About  100  gallons  of  water  are  required  per 
hour.  The  exhaust-pipe  from  the  engine  valve-box  is 
also  connected  directly  to  this  tank.  The  outlet  of  the 
water  is  connected  from  the  tank  to  sewer  and  the  out- 
let exhaust-pipe  is  also  connected  in -the  usual  way  to 
the  top  of  the  building. 

The  exhaust  gases  by  this  arrangement  come  in 
contact  with  the  water  and  are  partly  condensed  and 
quite  purified.  The  pressure  and  noise  are  eliminated 
entirely,  any  deposit  of  carbon  left  in  the  gases  after 
combustion  is  carried  off  by  the  water  to  the  sewer, 
and  there  is  practically  no  odor  when  the  gases  escape 
from  the  exhaust-pipe  to  the  atmosphere  at  the  roof. 
This  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  50.  The  sizes  given  for 
piping  and  tank  are  those  suitable  for  a  10  to  20  H.  P. 
oil  engine.  The  internal  piping  in  the  tank  is  so  placed 
to  avoid  any  pressure  which  is  created  inside  the  tank 
due  to  the  exhaust  gases  of  the  engine  from  entering 
the  sewer.  If  any  water  is  blown  out  at  the  top  of  the 
exhaust-pipe,  a  steam  exhaust-head  is  used  for  obviat- 
ing this.  This  apparatus  is  the  same  as  used  on  steam 
exhaust-pipes. 

Sizes  for  piping  and  tank  for  a  10  to  20  H.  P.  oil 
engine : 

Pipe  from  engine,  3"  diameter. 
Pipe  of  water  inlet,  J"  diameter. 
Pipe  to  atmosphere,  3"  diameter. 
Pipe  to  water  outlet,  2"  diameter. 
Size  of  tank,  2'  in  diameter  by  4'  high. 


104 


OIL    ENGINES. 


When  it  is  required  to  partly  silence  the  noise  of 
exhaust  only  part  or  all  of  the  water  from  the  cooling 
jacket  can  be  turned  into  the  exhaust-pipe  directly 
from  the  water-jacket.  The  water  is  allowed  to  run  to 
waste  again  at  the  silencer.  ( See  Fig.  51.)  Wherever 
water  is  connected  to  the  exhaust-pipe,  care  must  be 
taken  that  none  can  under  any  condition  enter  through 


FIG.  51. 

the  exhaust  valve-box  into  the  cylinder  or  vaporizer 
of  the  engine.  Where  water  enters  the  silencer  or  the 
piping  under  pressure  from  the  city  main  or  otherwise, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  area  of  the  outlet-pipe  be  large 
enough  to  allow  the  water  to  drain  freely  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  If  the  water  is  not  allowed  free 
drainage,  it  may  quickly  fill  up  the  silencer,  and  per- 
haps enter  the  valve-box  of  the  engine,  causing  the 
engine  to  stop  working. 


COOLING  WATER-TANKS  AND  OTHER  DETAILS.   105 

SELF-STARTERS. — Engines  of  25  H.  P.  and  over 
should  be  provided  with  separate  means  of  starting 
besides  the  relief-cam  for  reducing  the  pressure  of 
compression  as  usually  provided  with  the  smaller  sizes 
of  engines.  The  weight  of  the  fly-wheels  and  recipro- 
cating parts  on  the  larger  engines  which  are  to  be  put 
in  motion  when  being  started  necessarily  entails  con- 
siderable exertion,  and  the  strength  of  two  men  is  re- 
quired to  do  this  work  where  no  other  means  is  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose. 

There  are  several  different  self-starting  devices 
made  for  gas  engines,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  accom- 
plish this  work  with  a  gas  than  with  an  oil  engine,  since 
with  the  former  gas  only  has  to  be  dealt  with  and  can 
be  readily  diluted  with  air  and  an  explosive  mixture 
formed,  whereas  with  the  oil  engine  the  fuel  must  be 
vaporized  first  and  then  mixed  with  the  air  before  an 
explosive  mixture  is  available  to  be  ignited  and  the  im- 
pulse on  the  piston  obtained.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
accomplish  these  various  operations  necessary  in  the 
oil  engine,  sufficient  power  must  be  independently  pro- 
vided to  turn  the  engine  crank-shaft  over  two  or  three 
revolutions  so  that  the  different  mechanisms  can  work, 
the  fuel  be  injected  or  inducted  into  the  cylinder  or  va- 
porizer, become  mixed  with  the  incoming  air  and  aji 
explosion  obtained,  thus  giving  the  required  impulse. 
This  power  is  usually  derived  from  a  separate  air  reser- 
voir charged  during  the  previous  running  of  the 
engine  or  from  a  small  air-compressor  operated  by 
hand. 

The  self-starter  used  with  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  type 


io6 


OIL   ENGINES. 


of  oil  engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  52.  The  reservoir  is  con- 
nected to  air  and  exhaust  valve-box  of  engine  through 
a  supplementary  valve-box  containing  two  check- 
valves.  These  check-valves  are  arranged  to  be  lifted 
from  their  seats  by  means  of  the  hand-lever  as  shown. 
The  following  are  the  instructions  in  detail  for  start- 
ing these  engines  by  means  of  this  device.  (These  re- 


FIG.  52. 

marks  are  generally  applicable  to  all  types  of  engines 
provided  with  starting  devices  of  this  principle/) 

See  that  the  valve  A  on  the  steel  receiver  is  open, 
and  also  the  cock  B  on  the  pipe  leading  from  the  hand 
air-pump.  Put  the  starting  lever  in  the  quadrant  at 
the  position  marked  "  Running  and  when  charged," 
and  pin  it  there.  Then  screw  down  the  valve  C  on  the 
double  valve-box,  and  pump  air  into  the  receiver  by  the 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND    OTHER    DETAILS.     IO7 

air-pump  up  to  a  pressure  of  say  60  or  70  Ibs.  to 
the  square  inch  as  shown  on  the  gauge.  Then  close  the 
cock  B  on  the  air-pump  pipe,  withdraw  the  pin  in  the 
starting  lever,  and  put  it  in  the  hole  by  the  side  of  the 
lever  to  act  as  a  stop ;  then  place  the  engine  ready  for 
starting  as  elsewhere  described.  Place  the  crank  a 
little  over  the  dead  centre  in  whichever  direction  the 
engine  is  intended  to  run,  unscrew  the  valve  C  in 
double  valve-box,  and  then  suddenly  push  the  starting 
lever  forward  to  the  end  of  the  quadrant,  and  the  en- 
gine will  start.  Pull  the  lever  back  immediately 
against  the  pin,  and  screw  down  the  valves  on  the 
double  valve-box  and  on  the  receiver.  Before  stop- 
ping the  engine  at  any  time,  pull  the  lever  back  and  pin 
it  in  hole  marked  "  To  charge ;"  unscrew  the  valves  on 
the  double  valve-box  and  receiver,  and  allow  the  engine 
to  pump  air  into  the  receiver  again  to  80  or  100  Ibs. 
pressure ;  put  the  lever  to  the  centre  hole  marked 
"  When  running,  and  when  charged,"  and  pin  it  there ; 
screw  down  the  valves  on  the  receiver  and  valve-box, 
and  the  air  pressure  in  the  receiver  will  be  retained  in 
readiness  to  start  the  engine  the  next  time  it  is  re- 
quired. If  an  air-pump  is  not  provided,  the  engine 
must  be  started  in  the  usual  way  the  first  time,  by  pull- 
ing round  the  fly-wheel,  and  the  receiver  afterward 
filled  each  time  before  stopping. 

UTILIZATION  OF  WASTE  HEAT. — It  is  frequently  ad- 
vantageous to  utilize  the  heat  of  exhaust  gases  and  also 
the  heat  taken  up  by  the  cooling  water  as  it  issues  from 
the  cylinder  water-jacket  to  heat  the  rooms  of  a  build- 
ing or  workshop.  Sixty  per  cent,  at  least  of  the  total 


io8 


OIL    ENGINES. 


heat  evolved  from  the  fuel  used  in  the  engine  is  lost  in 
the  exhaust  gases  and  to  the  cooling  water  around  the 
cylinder-jacket.  This  represents  a  great  waste,  which 
can  be  partly  saved  in  any  installations  where  heat  is 
required  for  outside  purposes. 

In  instances  where  this  heat  can  be  utilized,  the 
water-pipes  should  be  connected  to  the  cylinder  water- 
jacket  outlet  and  inlet,  and  arranged  to  be  carried  to 


FIG.  53- 

supply  heat  to  the  building,  as  shown  in  Fig.  53.  The 
hot  water  issues  from  the  cylinder  at  not  less  than  110° 
Fahrenheit  temperature,  and  will  heat  the  piping  as 
shown.  With  a  10  to  20  brake  H.  P.  oil  engine,  200 
feet  of  2-inch  piping  can  be  suitably  warmed. 

The  heat  from  the  exhaust  gases  can  be  similarly 
utilized,  the  exhaust-pipe  being  connected  and  carried 
along  inside  the  building.  In  this  case  the  standard 
size  of  piping  should  be  slightly  increased  to  avoid 
choking  of  exhaust  gases,  and  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  piping  is  not  placed  within  12  inches  of  timber. 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND   OTHER    DETAILS.     ICX) 


FIG.  54. 


IIO  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  heat  in  the  exhaust  gases  can  also  be  extracted 
by  the  exhaust-pipes  being  passed  through  the  device, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  54.  Here  the  water  is  heated  to 
nearly  boiling-point,  and  will  maintain  a  considerable 
length  of  piping  at  the  required  heat.  With  an  engine 
of  15  brake  H.  P.  200  feet  of  piping  can  thus  be  heated. 
The  heat  obtained  in  these  instances  is  assumed  with 
the  engine  working  at  full  load  or  nearly  so. 

Fig.  54.  This  apparatus  consists  of  an  ordinary 
feed-water  heater,  with  a  number  of  "  U"-shaped  in- 
ternal tubes,  through  which  the  exhaust  gases  pass. 
The  cold  water  flows  in  at  the  lower  connection  and 
circulates  around  the  heated  tubes,  flowing  out  at  the 
connection  on  the  top  of  the  apparatus,  and  passes  in 
the  piping  around  the  building  to  be  heated  in  the 
usual  way,  and  returns  by  gravitation  again  to  the 
lower  connection. 

EXHAUST  TEMPERATURE. — The  temperature  of  the 
exhaust  gases  is  difficult  to  ascertain  correctly.  The 
temperature  of  the  exhaust  from  the  Diesel  engine  is 
recorded  by  Professor  Denton  as  being  approximately 
740°  Fahr.  The  temperature  of  different  oil-engine 
exhaust  gases  varies,  and  it  is  probably  considerably 
above  that  figure.  This  temperature  varies  also,  of 
course,  according  to  the  size  of  the  engine,  and  also 
according  to  the  power  that  the  engine  is  developing. 
The  heat  is  greatest  at  full  load  and  on  the  largest 
engines. 


CHAPTER  V: 
OIL  ENGINES  DRIVING  DYNAMOS. 

OIL  ENGINES  for  many  reasons  are  well  adapted  for 
driving  dynamos  generating  electric  current  in  isolated 
lighting  plants.  A  large  number  of  such  installations 
have  been  made  in  recent  years.  The  oil  engine  is  self- 
contained,  and,  unlike  a  gas  engine,  is  independent  of 
gas  works  or  gas-producer  plant  for  its  supply  of  fuel. 
Small  power  installations  with  oil  engines  as  prime 
movers  should  require  also  less  attention  than  a  plant 
equipped  with  steam  engine  and  boilers.  There  is 
probably  not  the  danger  there  is  with  a  steam  engine  of 
explosion,  and  as  the  fuel  used  is  ordinary  kerosene  of 
a  safe  flashing  point,  there  can  be  little  or  no  fear  of 
destruction  by  fire.  Practically,  no  hauling  of  fuel  is 
required,  nor  is  there,  with  an  oil  engine,  any  consump- 
tion of  water  if  storage  tanks  are  installed.  Further, 
an  oil.  engine  does  not  deteriorate  if  only  required  for 
part  of  the  year  and  left  standing  idle  for  the  remainder 
of  the  time.  With  these  and,  perhaps,  other  advan- 
tages possessed  by  oil  engines,  their  adaptability  for 
driving  dynamos  in  isolated  electric-lighting  and  power 
plants  may  be  understood.  Fig.  55  illustrates  an  oil 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  113 

engine  driving  dynamo  with  link  belt.  The  dynamo  is 
placed  close  to  the  engine  to  economize  floor  space. 

This  plant  is  arranged  with  the  cams  having  been 
set  for  the  engine  to  run  backwards. 

INSTALLATION. — In  order  that  the  plant  may  be  en- 
tirely satisfactory  and  give  the  best  results,  it  is  very 
essential  that  the  engine  and  dynamo  be  correctly 
located  with  regard  to  each  other  and  properly  installed 
at  the  outset. 

THE  FOUNDATIONS  both  for  the  engine  and  for  the 
dynamo  should  be  built  of  good  cement  concrete,  and 
should  be  placed  on  solid  ground,  so  that  they  are 
steady  and  without  vibration.  The  engine  foundation 
can  be  made  as  shown  at  Fig.  56.  When,  however,  the 
ground  that  the  foundation  is  built  upon  is  not  solid, 
it  is  preferred  to  build  the  foundation  more  tapered 
than  shown  toward  the  bottom,  thus  increasing  the 
surface  that  the  concrete  rests  on.  The  weight  of  the 
foundation  is  considered  sufficient  allowing  about  5 
cubic  feet  per  I.  H.  P.  for  engines  under  50  H.  P.  for 
concrete.  For  engines  over  50  I.  H.  P.  the  foundation 
can  be  reduced  per  I.  H.  P.  If  the  foundation  is  built 
of  brickwork,  its  dimensions  should  be  somewhat 
greater  than  those  given  for  concrete.  The  ingredients 
of  the  best  concrete  are  broken  stone,  Portland  cement 
and  sharp  sand.  The  following  proportions  form  a 
good  mixture : 

Portland  cement I 

Sand    , i .   3 

Broken  stone 4 


OIL    ENGINES. 


J.JVHS-XNVHO  JO  'TO 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  1 15 

When  driving  by  belt  the  distance  between  the  cen- 
tres of  the  dynamo  and  the  engine-shafts  is  an  im- 
portant feature.  Where  space  is  restricted  and  it  be- 
comes essential  that  the  dynamo  be  placed  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  engine,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  a  link 
leather  belt,  allowed  to  run  quite  loose,  the  part  of  the 
belt  in  tension  being  underneath,  the  loose  part  being 
on  top,  so  that  the  arc  of  contact  made  on  the  smaller 
pulley  of  the  dynamo  is  as  great  as  possible.  This 
arrangement  with  loose  belt  lessens  the  friction  on  the 
bearings,  which  would  be  occasioned  if  the  belt  were 
made  tight,  as  required  at  short  centres  with  ordinary 
leather  belt.  When  using  link  leather  belt,  the  distance 
between  the  centres  should  be  with  the  usual  standard 
size  of  fly-wheels  2  to  2.5  diameters  of  the  engine  fly- 
wheels— that  is,  the  distance  should  not  be  less  than  7 
ft.  for  wheels  of  3'  6"  diameter  and  not  greater 
than  15  ft.  for  wheels  of  6  ft.  diameter.  Where  or- 
dinary leather  belt  is  used  instead  of  link  belt,  this  dis- 
tance should  be  increased  to  3  diameters  of  fly-wheel, 
but  in  any  case  this  dimension  should  not  exceed  18 
ft.  for  driving  wheels  6  ft.  in  diameter.  To  obtain 
absolutely  steady  light,  it  is  sometimes  advantageous  to 
place  a  balance-wheel  on  the  armature  shaft  of  the  dy- 
namo. This  wheel  if  used  should  weigh  about  15 
Ibs.  per  K.  W.  of  dynamo,  and  be  of  such  diameter 
that  at  the  maximum  speed  of  dynamo  its  peripheral 
speed  will  not  exceed  6000  ft.  per  minute.  This 
wheel  must  be  accurately  balanced,  and  is  usually  cast 
in  one  piece  with  pulley,  as-  shown  in  Fig.  57.  The 


u6 


OIL    ENGINES. 


necessary  width  of  belt  to  transmit  the  H.  P.  may  be 
calculated  as  follows: 


H.  P.= 


V  X  w 
800 


H.  P.  =  the  actual  horse-power. 

V    =  velocity  of  belt  in  feet  per  minute. 
w      -  width  of  belt  in  inches. 


FIG.  57- 


The  maximum  number  of  incandescent  lights  avail- 
able from  the  dynamo  per  brake  or  actual  H.  P.  of 
engine  varies  according  to  the  efficiency  of  the  dynamo, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  means  of  transmission  as  well 
as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  electrical  installation.  Lack  of 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  1 1/ 

power  as  recorded  by  the  electrical  instruments  is  not 
necessarily  due  only  to  defects  of  the  engine,  as  leak- 
age of  power  may  occur  in  various  ways,  as  above 
stated.  Usually  ten  16  candle-power  lights  per  Brake 
H.  P.  are  calculated  as  being  a  fair  load  for  the  engine. 
With  arc  lamps  of  2000  candle-power,  the  B.  H.  P.  of 
engine  for  each  lamp  required  is  approximately  .75.  It 
is  advisable  to  have  spare  power  with  an  explosive 
'engine  above  that  required  to  run  all  the  lights.  Losses 
of  power  should  be  allowed  for  in  the  belt,  which  vary 
from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

The  regulation  of  explosive  engines  for  electric 
lighting  must  necessarily  be  such  that  there  is  no 
flicker  in  the  incandescent  lights.  A  speed  variation  of 
2  per  cent,  is  now  guaranteed  with  several  oil  engines. 
This  regulation  gives  a  very  good  light  and  equals  that 
developed  with  many  steam  engines. 

When  space  is  not  available  to  permit  the  use  of  belt 
transmission,  the  dynamo  is  connected  directly  on  to 
the  shaft  of  the  engine,  as  in  Figs.  58  and  580.  The 
coupling  between  engine-shaft  and  dynamo  is  usually 
flexible  to  allow  of  dynamo  bearings  and  the  engine- 
shaft  bearings  remaining  in  alignment  when  they  be- 
come worn.  In  direct-connected  plants  the  loss  due  to 
the  belt  transmission  is  avoided,  and  a  saving  is  thus 
effected;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first  cost  of  the 
dynamo  is  very  much  greater,  running,  as  it  does,  at  a 
slower  speed  than  the  belt-driven  machine,  and  there- 
fore is  of  larger  dimensions,  and  consequently  more 
costly. 

Fig.  58  illustrates  a  Hornsby-Akroyd  engine  of  the 


..*» 


'  r . 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  1 19 

two-cylinder  vertical  type,  coupled  direct  to  the  shaft  of 
the  dynamo,  all  placed  on  one  bed-plate. 

The  cranks  of  the  engine  are  placed  in  line,  and  ac- 
cordingly an  impulse  at  each  revolution  of  the  crank- 
shaft is  obtained.  The  method  of  working  and  the  de- 
tails of  the  vertical  type  of  these  engines  are  very  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  horizontal  type  elsewhere  described. 
This  outfit  has  given  very  satisfactory  results  with  in- 
candescent lamp  service,  the  variation  in  speed  being 
less  than  2  per  cent,  with  varying  loads,  and  a  large 
number  of  these  outfits  are  in  use. 

Fig.  580  illustrates  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  horizontal 
type  of  engine  directly  connected  to  dynamo  through 
flexible  coupling.  This  engine,  being  of  the  two-cycle 
type,  receives  an  impulse  at  each  revolution  of  the 
crank-shaft,  and  it  runs  very  regularly  and  at  a  high 
rotative  speed — namely,  400  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  method  of  working  of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engine 
is  fully  described  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  fly-wheels  of  explosive  engines  intended  for 
driving  dynamos  are  usually  made  heavier  than  when 
the  engines  are  required  for  other  purposes.  (See 
Chapter  II.) 

Notwithstanding  the  special  design  of  engines  for 
electric-lighting  purposes  and  apparent  correct  adjust- 
ment of  the  governing  mechanism,  the  lights  may 
sometimes  be  seen  to  flicker.  Flickering  in  the  incan- 
descent lights  can  be  easily  located  by  close  inspection 
of  the  engine  and  dynamo,  and  may  be  due  either 
to  the  fly-wheels,  the  governor,  the  belt,  or  the  dynamo 
itself.  To  precisely  locate  this  defect  and  remedy  it, 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING    DYNAMOS.  121 

notice  the  lamps  carefully.  If  the  variations  in  the 
light  are  due  to  want  of  fly-wheel  momentum,  such 
variations  will  be  seen  to  coincide  with  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  engine.  Again,  if  the  variation  in 
the  lights  is  only  periodical,  then  this  defect  should  be 
remedied  by  adjustment  of  the  governor.  Examine 
carefully  the  governing  mechanism  of  the  engine.  If 
the  variation  is  caused  by  the  governor  acting  too 
slowly,  then  adjust  'so  as  to  cause  more  rapid  contact 
with  the  valve  or  other  controlling  mechanism. 

The  cause  of  the  trouble  may  not  be,  as  already  sug- 
gested, in  the  fly-wheel  momentum  or  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  governor,  but  in  the  belt,  which  is  fre- 
quently the  sole  cause  of  unsatisfactory  lighting.  The 
engine  and  dynamo  pulleys  over  which  the  belt  runs 
must  be  exactly  in  line  with  each  other.  The  belt 
should  be  endless,  or  if  jointed  such  joints  should  be 
very  carefully  made.  A  thick,  uneven  joint  in  the  belt 
will  cause  a  flicker  in  the  lights  each  time  it  passes  over 
the  dynamo  pulley.  The  belt  should  be  allowed  to  run 
as  loose  as  possible.  The  writer  has  seen  belts  running 
quite  slack  and  most  satisfactorily  when  the  pulleys 
have  been  covered  with  specially  prepared  pulley-cover- 
ing material.  In  some  instances  in  the  dynamo  itself 
may  be  found  the  cause  of  the  variation  in  the  voltage. 
If  the  commutator  becomes  unevenly  worn,  or  if  the 
brushes  are  not  properly  adjusted,  unsteady  lights  will 
result,  and  then  the  commutator  should  be  made  of  even 
surface  and  the  brushes  correctly  adjusted. 

Oil  engines  can  be  stopped  if  desired  by  pressing 
button  in  the  dwelling-house,  an  attachment  being 


122  OIL   ENGINES. 

added  to  some  engines  which  automatically  turns  the 
stopping  handle.  This  is  an  advantage  where  the  light 
is  required  late  at  night,  and  allows  the  attendant  to 
leave  the  engine  early,  at  the  same  time  providing 
requisite  illumination  as  long  as  required. 

AIR  SUCTION. — The  noise  created  by  the  air  being 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  has,  in  some  cases,  to  be 
silenced.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  connecting  the 
air-inlet  pipe  to  wooden  box  containing  space  at  least 
five  times  as  great  as  the  volume  of  the  cylinder — the 
sides  of  the  box  having  holes  which  are  lined  with  rub- 
ber. The  total  area  of  all  these  small  inlet  air  holes 
should  be  at  least  three  times  the  area  of  the.  air-inlet 
pipe  to  the  engine. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OIL    ENGINES    CONNECTED    TO    AIR-COM- 
PRESSORS, PUMPS,  ETC. 

THE  use  of  compressed  air  is  now  being  extensively 
applied  as  a  means  of  power  transmission,  and  it  is 
coming  more  ancl  more  into  favor  in  this  connection 
also  for  actuating  pneumatic  tools,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses too  numerous  to  mention.  Many  advantages  are 
claimed  for  the  combination  of  explosive  engines  con- 
nected to  air-compressors  as  a  motive  power. 

Fig.  59  illustrates  an  oil  engine  direct-connected  to 
a  high-speed,  single-acting  air-compressor  placed  on 
the  same  base  plate  with  the  engine,  the  compressor  be- 
ing actuated  from  the  crank-disc  keyed  directly  on  to 
the  engine  crank-shaft.  This  outfit  consists  of  seven 
H.  P.  engine  and  8J"  diameter  and  8£"  stroke  single- 
acting  air-compressor  running  at  230  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  delivering  65  cubic  ft.  of  free  air  per 
minute  at  30  Ibs.  pressure. 

Fig.  60  shows  an  oil  engine  geared  to  air-compressor 
of  the  ordinary  double-acting  type.  In  this  outfit  the 
power  necessary  to  actuate  the  compressor  is  trans- 
mitted by  gearing  from  the  engine  crank-shaft  to  the 
compressor-shaft,  which  then  revolves  at  a  slower 
speed  than  the  engine-shaft.  This  arrangement  is  con- 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    12$ 

sidered  advantageous,  because  of  the  slower  motion 
of  the  air-compressor  valves  as  compared  with  the 
direct-connected  outfit.  In  each  of  the  illustrations  the 
air-compressor  cylinder  is  water-jacketed,  the  circulat- 
ing water  being  supplied  by  the  small  pump  actuated 
from  the  engine  cam-shaft,  the  water  being  first  de- 
livered to  the  compressor  cylinder,  and  thence  to  the 
oil  engine  cylinder.  This  outfit  consists  of  13  B.  H.  P. 
oil  engine  and  "  Ingersoll-Sargent  "  double  acting  air- 
compressor  having  cylinder  8"  diameter  and  8" 
stroke,  and  running  at  150  revolutions  per  minute,  de- 
livering 70  cubic  ft.  of  free  air  per  minute  at  70  to  80 
Ibs.  pressure. 

To  calculate  the  H.  P.  required  to  actuate  an  air- 
compressor,  the  diameter  of  compressor  cylinder  and 
length  of  stroke  being  given  as  well  as  the  required 
gauge  pressure,  then  the  mean  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
must  be  ascertained  from  the  table  given  on  page  126 
corresponding  with  gauge  pressure  required.  The 
power  necessary  is  then  found  by  means  of  the  follow- 
ing formulae : 

PLAN 

H.  P.=r  -  —  . 

33,000 

P  ~  mean  effective  pressure  in  pounds-  per  square 
inch  in  cylinder  as  given  in  table. 

L  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet. 

A  =  area  in  cylinder  in  inches. 

JV  =  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  with  single- 
acting  compressor  if  double-acting  x  2. 


126 


OIL    ENGINES. 


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OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    127 

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OIL  ENGINES   CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    I2Q 


For  example,  in  the  8J  X  8J  inch  single-acting 
direct-connected  plant  (Fig.  59);  the  theoretical  power 
required  to  actuate  the  compressor  is  as  follows : 


H.  P.  = 


19.4  X  -78  X  567  X  230 

33,000 
H.  P.=  5.98. 


As  this  represents  only  the  power  required  to  com- 
press the  air,  additional  power  must  also  be  provided 
sufficient  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  compressor. 
In  this  case  it  will  be  noted  that  approximately  15  per 
cent,  is  allowed. 

TABLE  III. — EFFICIENCIES  OF  AIR-COMPRESSORS  AT 
DIFFERENT  ALTITUDES. 


Barometric,  Pressure. 

'%**- 

g   >,  t/3  "£ 

tw  £*£ 

<•-»  •*-*  n 

Decreased 

Altitude, 
feet. 

EgSS 

Jlf£ 

^wo 

sis 

>% 

Power 
Required, 
Per  Cent 

Inches, 
Mercury. 

Pounds  Per 
Square  Inch. 

O 

30.00 

14-75 

100. 

0. 

0. 

IOOO 

28.88 

14.20 

97- 

3- 

1.8 

2OOO 

27.80 

13.67 

93- 

7- 

3-5 

3000 

26.76 

13.16 

90. 

10. 

5-2 

4000 

25.76 

12:67 

87. 

13- 

6.9 

5000 

24.79 

1  2.  2O 

84. 

16. 

8-5 

6000 

23.86 

n-73 

81. 

19. 

IO.  I 

7000 

22.97 

11.30 

78. 

22. 

ii.  6 

8000 

22.11 

10.87 

76. 

24. 

I3-I 

9000 

21.29 

10.46 

73- 

27. 

14.6 

IOOOO 

20.49 

10.07 

70. 

30- 

16.1 

I  IOOO 

19.72 

9.70 

68. 

32- 

17-6 

12000 

18.98 

9-34 

65- 

35- 

19.1 

13000 

18.27 

8.98 

63- 

37- 

20.  6 

14000 

17-59 

8.65. 

60. 

40. 

22.1 

15000 

16.93 

8.32 

58- 

42. 

23-5 

OIL    ENGINES. 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    13! 

The  efficiency  of  an  air  compressor  is  reduced  when 
working  at  high  altitudes.  Table  III.  gives  such  de- 
preciation in  efficiency  at  the  different  altitudes. 

OIL-ENGINE  PUMPING  PLANTS. — Fig.  61  represents 
an  oil-engine  pumping  plant  as  installed  for  supplying 


FIG.  62. 


town  or  village  water-supply.  This  outfit  consists  of 
13  H.  P.  oil  engine  connected  by  friction-clutch  to  the 
shaft  of  a  triplex  pump  having  cylinders  6J"  diameter 
and  8"  stroke. 

The  amount  of  water  delivered  by  this  outfit  is  ap- 
proximately -165  gallons  per  minute,  with  total  aver- 
age lift  of  195  ft.  The  cost  of  fuel  for  running  is 


I32  OIL    ENGINES. 

about  13  cents  per  hour.  Practically,  no  attention  is 
required  beyond  starting  the  engine  and  occasional  lu- 
brication. 

Fig.  62  shows  a  small  outfit  suitable  for  supplying 
water  to  a  country-house,  and  consists  of  i^  H.  P. 
engine  and  pump  capable  of  delivering  1200  gallons  of 
water  with  150  ft.  total  lift. 

To  calculate  the  theoretical  H.  P.  required  to  raise  a 


FIG.  63. 

given  amount  of  water,  multiply  the  number  of  gallons 
to  be  delivered  per  minute  by  8.3,  which  gives  the 
weight;  again,  multiply  by  the  total  required  lift  in 
feet,  and  divide  the  result  by  33,000,  thus : 

Number  of  gallons  X  8.3  X  height  of  lift 

H.  P.  = 

33,000 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    133 

Example:  165  gallons  195  feet  lift  • 

165  X  8-3  X  195 

33,000 
=  8  H.  P.  actually  required  to  lift  water. 

The  friction  of  the  moving  parts  of  the  pump  has  to 
be  overcome,  and  for  this  and  other  losses  allowance 
is  usually  made  by  figuring  the  efficiency  of  the  pump 
(in  the  smaller  size)  at  60  per  cent,  to  70  per  cent. 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING    ICE    AND    REFRIGERATING 
MACHINES. 

Oil  engines  are  now  being  used  in  connection  with 
small  ice  and  refrigerating  machines. 

Fig.  63  represents  a  plant  of  this  description,  con- 
sisting of  an  oil  engine  belted  direct  to  a  refrigerating 
machine  used  in  this  instance  for  cooling  a  butcher's 
cold-storage  box. 

The  refrigerating  machines  are  rated  according  to 
the  -amount  of  ice  they  are  assumed  to  displace.  A 
one-ton  machine  is  one  which  will  effect  the  same 
cooling  in  twenty-four  hours  which  a  ton  of  ice  would 
do  in  melting.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  refrigerat- 
ing machine  is  that  while  the  ice  can  only  produce  a 
temperature  of  35°  Fahr.  and  upward,  the  refrigerat- 
ing machine  can  be  operated  to  produce  any  tempera- 
ture which  may  be  desired. 

In  the  process  of  refrigeration,  the  work  which  the 


134  OIL    ENGINES. 

oil  aigine  has  to  do  is  to  drive  a  compressor,  and  there- 
fore the  same  principles  may  be  applied  to  this  machine 
as  to  the  ordinary  air-compressor  already  discussed. 
We  need  only  to  know  how  much  gas  has  to  be  com- 
pressed and  the  conditions  upon  which  to  base  the  cal- 
culation for  the  work  done  in  the  compressor.  It  is 
the  practice  of  refrigerating-machine  makers  to  allow 
about  4.5  cubic  ft.  displacement  per  ton  of  refrigera- 
tion— that  is  to  say,  a  lo-ton  machine  is  one  having 
capacity  of  pumping  45  cubic  ft.  of  gas  per  minute. 

In  the  case  of  the  ordinary  compressor,  we  have  only 
to  consider  the  final  pressure,  since  the  initial  pressure 
is  always  that  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  case  of  the 
refrigerating  machine,  however,  this  is  not  the  case, 
for  the  gas  being  circulated  in  a  closed  circuit  may 
have  not  only  a  varying  final  pressure,  but  also  a  vary- 
ing suction  pressure.  These  pressures  depend  upon 
the  temperatures  obtaining  in  the  cold  room  and  in 
the  condenser  in  a  manner  which  it  is  not  necessary 
to  consider  in  detail.  The  initial  pressure  and  the  final 
pressure  being  known,  the  mean  pressure  may  be  cal- 
culated in  the  ordinary  way. 

To  facilitate  this  calculation,  table  No.  IV.  may  be 
consulted.  The  vertical  left-hand  column  gives  the 
initial  pressure  corresponding  to  the  temperatures 
named  in  the  second  column,  these  being  the  tempera- 
tures inside  the  cooling  pipes.  The  top  horizontal  line 
gives  the  pressure  corresponding  to  the  temperatures 
in  the  second  horizontal  line.  These  temperatures  are 
those  obtaining  in  the  condenser. 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    135 


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136  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  mean  pressure  corresponding  to  any  two  known 
conditions  may  therefore  be  taken  *rom  the  table ;  for 
example,  with  a  suction  pressure  of  28  and  a  condenser 
pressure  of  153,  the  mean  pressure  is  67.02  pounds. 
The  work  required  to  produce  a  ton  of  refrigeration, 
therefore,  would  be 


33,000 
in  which 

P  —  67.02  pounds. 

L  =  4.5  feet. 

A  =  144  square  inches  =  I  sq.  ft. 


Substituting  these  values,  the  horse-power  is  1.32. 
No  allowance  is  here  made  for  friction,  and  in  small 
refrigerating  machines  this  should  be  extremely  liberal. 

Moreover,  on  reference  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  machine  may  happen  to  be  called  upon  to  work 
under  conditions  where  the  mean  pressure  will  be  very 
much  increased  ;  such,  for  example,  when  the  back 
pressure  is  51  Ibs.  and  the  high  pressure  is  218  Ibs. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  mean  pressure  will 
be  94.52  instead  of  67.02.  For  these  reasons  it  is  not 
safe  to  provide  for  a  refrigerating  machine  of  small 
dimensions  a  power  much  less  than  about  3  H.  P.  per 
ton  of  refrigeration.  Under  ordinary  conditions  of 
running,  less  than  this,  and  frequently  only  one-half  of 
this  will  be  required,  but  provision  should  be  made  for 
taking  care  of  extreme  conditions. 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    137 

FRICTION-CLUTCHES. — Where  engines  of  10  H.  P. 
or  over  are  installed,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  a 
friction-clutch  pulley  added.  This  can  be  attached 
either  to  the  engine  crank-shaft  or  to  the  intermediate 
or  main  shaft.  Fast-and-loose  pulleys  are  sometimes 
substituted-  for  the  friction-clutch. 

With  either  friction-clutch  or  fast-and-loose  pulleys 
the  advantages  gained  are,  first,  the  ease  with  which 
the  engine  can  be  started,  the  loose  or  friction- 
clutch  pulley  only  instead  of  the  whole  shaft  has  to  be 
turned  when  the  plant  is  started,  and,  secondly,  in  case 
of  accident  or  other  emergency  necessitating  the  quick 
cessation  of  the  revolving  machinery,  this  can  be  ac- 
complished at  once  by  simply  moving  over  the  handle 
of  the  friction-clutch  and  pulley.  Otherwise  without 
the  clutch  the  heavy  fly-wheels  of  the  engine  remain 
revolving  for  a  minute  or  so  after  the  fuel  of  the  engine 
is  turned  off,  and  being  directly  connected  by  belt  to 
the  shafting  and  machinery,  the  whole  plant  is  in  mo- 
tion while  the  momentum  of  the  fly-wheels  exists. 

Friction-clutches  are  made  of  various  designs  by  sev- 
eral manufacturers.  That  shown  in  Fig.  630  is  espe- 
cially adapted  for  explosive  engines.  It  consists  of  a 
carrier  which  bolts  to  the  regular  bosses  on  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  engine,  this  carrier  acting  as  the  journal 
of  the  pulley,  and  the  mechanism  of  the  clutch  is  en- 
closed in  the  same.  The  clutch  has  a  side  grip.  The 
pulley,  otherwise  loose,  is  thrown  into  connection  with 
the  engine  fly-wheel  by  simply  pushing  in  a  spindle  on 
which  a  hand-wheel  revolves  loosely.  Two  rollers  are 
mounted  on  the  end  of  th'e  spindle,  and  bearing  on 


"38 


OIL    ENGINES. 


these  rollers  are  the  levers  which  in  turn  are  pivoted  to 
the  gripping  plate  and  a  lug  on  the  levers  abuts  against 
the  adjusting  screw.  The  inward  movement  of  the 
spindle  forces  these  levers  apart  and  draws  the  grip- 
ping plate  in,  thus  gripping  the  pulley  in  a  circular  vise 


, ENGINE  FLY  WHEEL 

5WIWQ  METHOD  OF  ATTACHING  CLUTCH 


FIG.  630. 


between  the  flange  on  the  carrier  and  the  gripping- 
plate.  To  release  the  clutch  the  spindle  is  pulled  out, 
and  thereby  the  strain  on  the  levers  is  removed,  thus 
allowing  the  pulley  to  run  loose.  This  clutch  is  known 
as  the  B  and  C  Friction  Clutch  Pulley. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING     OIL    EN- 
GINES. 

THE  attendant,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results 
from  an  engine,  should  first  fully  understand  the 
principle  by  which  the  engine  he  is  running  works 
and  the  conditions  which  it  is  essential  should  ex- 
ist in  the  cylinder  to  procure  proper  explosion  and 
combustion.  These  conditions  are  practically  the 
same  in  all  types  of  oil  engines.  The  explosive  mixture 
consists  of  hydrocarbon  gas  and  atmospheric  air,  the 
gas  being  formed  from  kerosene  oil  previously  gasefied 
or  vaporized  and  properly  mixed  with  air  by  one  or 
other  -of  the  different  methods,  as  described  in  Chap- 
ter I.  This  mixture  is  then  compressed  by  the  inward 
stroke  of  the  piston  before  ignition  with  the  two-cycle 
type  of  engine.  The  mixture  is  afterward  ignited  b}r 
hot  tube,  electricity,  heated  surfaces,  or  otherwise,  as 
also  described  in  Chapter  I.,  and  the  required  impulse 
is  then  obtained  at  the  piston.  If  for  any  reason  these 
conditions  are  not  existing,  proper  explosion  and  com- 
bustion will  not  follow.  The  several  reasons  which 
prevent  proper  explosions  being  obtained  are  very  fully 
described  in  Chapter  IIL  on  "  Testing." 


I4O  OIL    ENGINES. 

The  conditions  necessary  to  insure  proper  working 
are  as  follows : 

(a)  Oil    supply    to    the    vaporizer    or    combustion 
chamber    delivered  at  the  correct    time,  and  in  such 
quantity  as  to  form  proper  explosive  mixture.     Effi- 
cient supply  of  air. 

(b)  Sufficient  pressure  in  the  cylinder  by  compres- 
sion before  ignition. 

(c)  Correct  ignition  of  the  gases,  the  ignition  tak- 
ing place  at^the  proper  time. 

CYLINDER  LUBRICATING  OIL. — It  is  essential  that  a 
suitable  lubricating  oil  be  used  for  the  piston.  The 
great  heat  evolved  in  the  cylinders  of  explosive  engines 
renders  this  essential. 

The  lubricating  oil  recommended  for  this  purpose  is 
a  light  mineral  oil  having  a  flash  point  of  not  less  than 
360°  Fahr.  and  fire  test  420°  Fahr.  Gravity  test  25.8, 
and  having  a  viscosity  of  175  (Saybold  test).  If  waste- 
oil  filter  is  used,  the  oil  filtered  must  not  be  employed 
for  lubricating  the  piston  at  any  time. 

The  following  are  instructions  as  formulated  by  the 
makers  of  the  different  engines,  each  of  the  four  types 
of  vaporizers  being  here  represented,  as  well  as  the 
different  kinds  of  igniting  devices. 


HORNSBY-AKROYD  TYPE. 

The  method  of  working  is  explained  in  Chap- 
ter IX.,  giving  general  description  of  these  engines. 
The  oil-tank  in  the  base  of  the  engine  should  be  filled 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       14! 

and  the  oil  pumped  up  by  hand  until  it  passes  the  over- 
flow pipe.  The  water-tanks  if  used  must  also  be  filled 
to  the  top  and  the  cylinder  water-jacket  also  be  full 
of  water  before  starting. 

PREPARING  TO  START  THE  ENGINE. — On  those  en- 
gines in  which  the  vaporizer  is  partially  water-jack- 
eted, the  valve  on  the  inlet  water-pipe  should  be  closed 
before  commencing  to  heat  the  vaporizer  for  starting, 
and  opened,  or  partially  opened,  when  running. 

To  HEAT  THE  VAPORIZER. — A  coil  lamp  is  used  (see 
illustration,  Fig.  64)  for  this  purpose;  the  lamp  reser- 
voir should  be  nearly  filled  with  oil.  A  little  kerosene 
should  then  be  poured  into  the  cup  containing  asbestos 
wick  under  the  coil  and  lighted.  When  this  has  nearly 
burnt  out,  pump  up  the  reservoir  with  air  by  the  air- 
pump,  when  oil  vapor  will  issue  from  the  small  nipple, 
and  on  being  lighted  will  give  a  clear  flame.  When 
it  is  required  to  stop  the  lamp,  turn  the  little  thumb- 
screw on  the  reservoir-filling  nozzle  and  let  the  air  out, 
and  remove  the  lamp  from  the  bracket.  The  nipple  at 
any  time  can  be  cleaned  with  the  small  prickers  which 
are  supplied  for  this  purpose.  Should  the  U-tubes  get 
choked  up,  the  lower  one  can  be  gotten  at  by  unscrew- 
ing the  joint  just  below  it,  and  the  other  one  by  screw- 
ing out  the  nipple  from  which  the  oil  vapor  issues. 
The  heating  of  the  vaporizer  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant duties  to  be  attended  to,  and  care  must  be  taken 
that  it  is  made  hot  enough  before  starting.  The  at- 
tendant must  see  that  the  lamp  is  burning  properly  for 
five  or  ten  minutes,  or  sometimes  a  little  longer,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the.-engine.  If,  however,  the 


142 


OIL    ENGINES. 


lamp  is  burning  badly,  it  may  take  longer  to  get  the 
proper  heat.  It  is  most  important  that  the  lamp  should 
be  carefully  attended  to. 


FIG.  64. 


To  START  THE  ENGINE. — Place  the  starting  handle 
to  position  "  Shut,"  and  work  the  pump-lever  up  and 
down  until  the  oil  is  seen  to  pass  the  overflow-valve. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING    OIL    ENGINES.       143 

Then  turn  the  handle  to  position  "  Open,"  work  the 
pump-lever  up  and  down  again,  one  or  two  strokes, 
then  give  the  fly-wheel  one  or  two  turns,  and  the  engine 
will  start  readily.  There  is  also  a  handle  upon  the 
cam-shaft,  which,  when  starting  the  engine,  must  be 
placed  in  the  position  marked  "  To  Start,"  and  imme- 
diately the  engine  has  gotten  up  speed  this  handle 
should  be  placed  in  position  marked  "  To  Work." 


FIG.  65. 


(See  Fig.  65.)  When  it  is  required  to  stop  the  engine, 
turn  the  starting  handle  to  the  position  marked  "  Shut." 
If  too  much  oil  is  pumped  into  vaporizer  before  start- 
ing it  will  be  difficult  to  start  up. 

OILING  ENGINE. — See  that  the  oil-cups  on  the  main 
crank-shaft  bearings  are.  fitted  with  proper  wicks 
and  with  other  oil-cups  are  filled  with  oil.  Oil  the 


144 


OIL    ENGINES. 


small  end  of  the  connecting-rod  which  is  inside  the  pis- 
ton, also  the  bearings  on  horizontal  shaft  and  the  skew- 
gearing,  the  rollers  at  the  ends  of  the  valve-levers  and 
their  pins,  and  the  pins  on  which  the  levers  rock,  the 
governor  spindle  and  joints,  the  bevel-wheels  which 
drive  same,  and  the  joints  that  connect  the  governor 


FIG.  66. 


to  the  small  relief-valve  on  the  vaporizer  valve-box. 
For  such  purposes,  none  but  the  best  engine  oil  should 
be  used. 

OIL-PUMP. — When  the  engine  is  working  at  its  full 
power  the  distance  between  the  two  round  flanges  A 
and  B  on  the  pump-plunger  should  be  such  that  the 
gauge  "  i"  will  just  fit  in  between  the  flanges.  (See 


OF  1 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES/ 

Fig.  66. )  The  other  lengths  on  the  hand-gauge  mark< 
"  2"  and  "  3"  are  useful  for  adjusting  the  pump  to 
economize  oil  when  running  on  a  medium  or  a  light 
load.  Do  not  screw  down  the  pump  packing  tight 
enough  to  interfere  with  the  free  working  of  the 
plunger. 

RUNNING  ENGINES  LIGHT  OR  NEARLY  So. — When 
engines  are  required  to  run  with  light  or  no  load,  it  is 
best  to  alter  the  stroke  of  the  pump  to  supply  only  suf- 
ficient oil  to  keep  the  engine  running  at  full  speed,  so 
that  the  governor  occasionally  reduces  the  oil.  The 
inlet  water-pipe  to  the  vaporizer-jacket  should  be 
closed  when  running  light  also. 

AlR-lNLET    AND    EXHAUST    VALVES. See     that     the 

air-inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  working  properly  and 
drop  onto  their  seats.  They  can  at  any  time,  if  re- 
quired, be  made  tight  by  grinding  in  with  a  little  flour 
of  emery  and  water.  The  set-screws  at  the  ends  of  the 
levers  that  open  these  valves  must  not  be  screwed  up 
so  high  that  the  valves  cannot  close ;  this  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  seeing  that  the  rollers  at  the  other  end  of 
the  levers  are  'just  clear  of  the  cams  when  the  project- 
ing part  of  the  cams  is  not  touching  them.  (See  Fig. 

67.) 

VAPORIZER  VALVE-BOX. — In  this  box  there  are  two 
valves.  The  vertical  one  is  regulated  by  the  governor, 
and  when  the  engine  runs  too  fast  the  governor  pushes 
it  down,  thus  opening  it  and  allowing  some  oil  to  over- 
flow into  the  by-pass,  which  should  only  allow  oil  to 
pass  when  the  governor  presses  it  down,  or  when  the 
starting  handle  is  turned  to  "  Shut."  The  horizontal 


146  OIL    ENGINES. 

valve  in  this  box  is  a  back-pressure  valve,  and  should 
a  leakage  occur  it  may  be  discovered  by  slightly  open- 
ing the  overflow-valve  (by  pressing  it  down  with  the 
hand),  when,  if  there  is  a  leakage,  vapor  will  issue  from 
the  overflow-pipe,  and  in  that  case  the  valve  should  be 
examined,  and,  if  necessary,  be  taken  out  for  inspection 
and  ground  on  its  seat  with  a  little  emery  flour  and 
water.  If  the  horizontal  valve  and  sleeve  are  taken  out, 
care  should  be  taken,  in  replacing  them,  to  use  the 
same  thickness  of  jointing  material  as  before. 
.  OIL-PIPES. — The  pipe  from  the  pump  to  the  vapor- 
izer valve-box  has  a  gradual  rise  from  the  pump;  if 


FIG.  67. 

otherwise,  an  air-pocket  would  be  formed  in  which  air 
would  be  compressed  upon  each  stroke  of  the  pump, 
and  thus  allow  the  oil  to  enter  slowly  and  not  as  it 
should  do,  suddenly.  If  the  oil  gets  below  the  filter 
at  any  time,  work  the  pump  by  hand  a  few  minutes, 
holding  open  the  overflow-valve  in  the  vaporizing 
valve-box,  so  as  to  get  the  air  well  out  of  the  pipes. 
The  oil-filter  should  be  taken  out  and  cleaned  occa- 
sionally. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       147 

SPRAY  HOLES. — It  may  be  desirable  to  take  off  the 
vaporizer  valve-box  and  clean  the  little  hole  or  holes 
through  which  the  oil  issues.  The  reamers,  or  small 
wires  supplied,  are  not  for  increasing  the  size  of  the 
hole,  but  are  simply  for  cleaning  it  at  any  time. 

TESTING  OIL-PUMP. — See  that  the  pump  gets  its 
proper  oil  supply.  Disconnect  the  oil-supply  pipe 
union  attached  to  vaporizer  valve-box,  and  give  the 


FIG.  68. 


pump  two  or  three  strokes  so  as  to  pump  oil  up ;  then 
press  the  thumb  firmly  on  the  end  of  the  pipe,  as  shown 
in  illustration,  Fig.  68.  Pump  both  by  a  sudden 
jerk,  and  afterward  by  a  steady  pressure.  If  the 
plunger  yields  to  a  sudden  jerk  and  no  oil  has  gotten 
past  the  thumb  over  the  top  of  the  delivery-pipe,  then 
the  pump  or  the  pipes  contain  air.  If  the  plunger  does 
not  yield  to  a  sudden  jerk,  but  slowly  falls  under  a 
constant  pressure,  then  the -suction-valves  of  pump  are 


148  OIL    ENGINES. 

not  tight.  If  necessary,  the  valve-seats  can  be  renewed 
by  lightly  driving  the  cast-steel  ball  valves  onto  their 
seats  with  a  small  copper  punch.  If  it  is  required  to 
see  that  the  vaporizer  valve-box  is  in  order,  take  off  the 
vaporizer  valve-box  body  and  sleeve,  and  connect  them 
to  the  oil-supply  pipe  from  the  pump,  so  that  the  jet 
from  the  spraying  hole  can  be  directed  where  it  can  be 
seen.  Work  the  pump  by  hand,  when  the  jet  produced 
should  be  clear,  with  distinct  and  abrupt  pauses  be- 
tween each  delivery. 

THE  GOVERNOR  "  HUNTING." — This  may  be  caused 
by  the  joints  or  spindle  of  the  governor  becoming  bent, 
dirty,  or  sticky,  and  requiring  cleaning.  If  the  pump 
is  not  giving  a  regular  supply  of  oil,  it  may  sometimes 
cause  the  governor  to  hunt,  and  the  engine  would  run 
irregularly.  This  may  occur  when  the  engine  is  first 
started. 

THE  CROSSLEY  PATENT  TYPE. 

STARTING. — Heat  the  ignition-tube  by  means  of  the 
lamp  in  the  usual  way.  The  pressure  (about  60 
Ibs.)  necessary  to  raise  the  oil  to  the  lamp  in  this 
engine  is  taken  from  the  oil-tank,  the  air  pressure  be- 
fore starting  being  created  by  hand.  This  lamp  heats 
both  the  ignition-tube  to  a  good  red  heat  and  vaporizer 
blocks  to  less  heat  simultaneously.  The  necessary 
pressure  to  raise  the  oil  to  the  lamp  is  maintained  by 
the  pump  actuated  from  the  cam-shaft  when  the  en- 
gine is  running. 

PRIMING  CUP. — Fill  the  little  brass  priming  cup  on 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       149 

the  top  of  the  vaporizer  cover  with  oil ;  open  the  valve 
and  let  the  oil  pass  through  into  the  vaporizer,  and 
then  shut  it  again.  Leave  the  wire  on  the  chain  out  of 
the  measurer.  Place  the  exhaust  roller  over  to  engage 
with  the  one-half  compression  cam ;  turn  the  fly-wheel 
until  the  crank-pin  is  about  one  inch  above  the  hori- 
zontal (both  valves  being  closed)  ;  open  the  stop- valve 
on  the  end  of  air-receiver ;  connect  up  the  oil-pump  by 
replacing  the  back-pin,  having  first  made  a  few  strokes 
with  the  hand-pump  until  the  oil-pipe  is  full  up  to  the 
measurer,  and  turn  the  quadrant  on  air-throttle  valve. 
The  engine  is  now  ready  to  start,  and  the  air  under  pres- 
sure from  receiver  may  be  let  in.  Loosen  the  screw  of 
starter  valve ;  open  the  valve  by  means  of  the  loose  lever, 
and  hold  open  until  the  crank  has  just  passed  the  verti- 
cal position.  This  impulse  will  be  sufficient  to  turn  the 
fly-wheel  a  few  times,  during  which  the  piston  will  re- 
ceive regular  impulses.  The  exhaust  roller  may  then  be 
moved  off  the  one-half  compression,  when  full  speed 
will  be  steadily  attained. 

As  soon  as  convenient  the  screw  on  the  starting 
valve  may  be  unscrewed  to  allow  the  receiver  to  be- 
come recharged  again.  Should  the  engine  miss  explo- 
sions and  fail  to  attain  full  speed,  then  turn  the  lid  of 
measurer  partly  around  and  give  a  little  extra  supply 
of  oil  from  a  hand-can. 

AIR  SUPPLY. — At  full  speed  the  air-throttle  must  be 
opened  to  admit  more  air,  and  the  amount  must  be 
judged  as  to  whether  the  engine  ignites  its  charges  or 
not ;  too  much  air  will  cause  it  to  miss  fire — too  little 
air  causes  too  sharp  firing.  If  the  receiver  is  not 


I5O  OIL    ENGINES. 

charged,  and  it  is  required  to  start  engine  by  hand,  pull 
around  the  fly-wheel  and  get  up  as  much  speed  as  pos- 
sible before  putting  the  governor  blade  in  position  for 
engaging  with  the  governor  mechanism  which  opens 
the  gas-valve. 

VAPORIZER  BLOCK. — The  vaporizer  block  must  be 
well  heated  previous  to  starting;  otherwise  unvapor- 
ized  oil  will  be  carried  over  into  cylinder,  arid  thus 
make  starting  uncertain  until  the.  oil  has  all  passed 
away  in  evaporation.  This  may  also  cause  puffs  of 
vapor  to  rush  out  of  the  air  inlet  at  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  preceded  by  a  slight  explosion  in  the  vapor- 
izer block.  This  is  caused  by  late  ignition  in  cylinder, 
and  is  due  to  insufficient  vaporization  or  to  the  ignition- 
tube  not  being  hot  enough. 

VAPOR  VALVE. — If  small  puffs  of  vapor  issues 
out  of  the  air-pipe  of  the  chimney  every  other  revolu- 
tion while  the  engine  is  running,  it  is  .a  proof  that  the 
vapor-valve  is  not  tight  and  must  be  cleaned  and 
ground  on  its  seating. 


CAMPBELL  OIL  ENGINE. 

STARTING. — Before  starting  the  engine,  see  that  the 
vaporizer  is  thoroughly  well  heated.  The  lamp  under 
the  vaporizer  should  burn  with  a  long,  bright  flame. 
When  the  vaporizer  is  sufficiently  heated,  throw  the 
governor  drop-lever  down,  thus  holding  the  exhaust- 
valve  open  and  relieving  the  compression.  While  this 
lever  is  held  down,  give  a  quarter  or  a  half  turn  of  the 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       15! 

oil-cock;  then  turn  the  fly-wheel  quickly  four  or  five 
revolutions,  and  allow  the  governor  drop-lever  to  be 
free.  It  will  swing  up  clear  of  the  exhaust-lever'  and 
allow  a  charge  of  air  and  oil  to  be  driven  into  the  vapor- 
izer ;  the  engine  should  then  commence  working.  After 
the  engine  has  started,  turn  on  a  little  more  oil.  If  the 
oil  taken  into  the  vaporizer  should  not  explode  prop- 
erly, the  oil-cock  must  be  shut  and  opened  again 
quickly  to  allow  any  superfluous  oil  which  has  lodged 
in  the  vaporizer  to  be  drawn  out  of  it  and  vaporized. 
When  using  a  heavy  oil,  open  the  inlet-valve  to  allow 
more  air  to  flow  into  the  vaporizer. 

AIR  AND  OIL  SUPPLY. — Too  much  oil  passing  to  the 
vaporizer  will  cause  the  engine  to  miss  exploding  or  to 
explode  irregularly.  To  increase  the  air  supply, 
slacken  the  nuts  and  tension  of  air-inlet  valve ;  by 
tightening  the  nuts  and  spring,  the  air  supply  is  de- 
creased. 

IGNITION-TUBE. — See  that  the  inside  of  the  ig- 
nition-tube is  kept  clear  from  oil,  and  keep  all  the 
valves  clean  and  the  governors  free  from  oil  and  dirt. 
When  the  engine  is  running  properly,  the  quantity  of 
oil  required  is  the  same,  whether  the  engine  is  running 
at  light  or  heavy  load. 

GOVERNORS. — The  governors  cut  out  some  of  the 
charges  at  light  loads  and  admit  more  charges  of  oil  at 
heavy  loads;  each  charge,  however,  has  the  same  com- 
position of  vapor  and  air. 


152  OIL   ENGINES. 


THE    PRIESTMAN    TYPE. 

STARTING. — Open  the  drain-cock  in  the  vaporizer 
and  see  that  the  vaporizer  contains  no  oil ;  then  close 
the  cock.  Fill  the  oil-tank  to  the  small  upper-pet  cock, 
through  the  strainer  provided  and  screw  down  the  re- 
lief air-valve.  Lubricate  the  piston  wrist-pin  and  the 
crank-bearing  between  the  fly-wheels.  Drop  a  little  oil 
on  the  pump-piston  and  in  the  oil  holes  of  the  bearings 
of  the  large  gear-wheels,  the  eccentric,  and  all  other 
bearings.  Mineral  oil  must  not  be  used  on  the  governor 
oil  spindle  which  projects  into  the  spray-maker. 

ELECTRIC  IGNITER. — Raise  the  electric  fork-handle 
slightly.  This  is  done  in  order  to  produce  the  igniting 
spark  somewhat  later  for  starting  than  is  required  when 
the  engine  is  running  at  full  speed.  Turn  the  fly-wheels 
forward  until  the  small  knob  on  the  cam-shaft  has  just 
passed  the  contact  with  the  forks,  and  the  crank-pin  is 
then  just  clear  of  the  large  gear-wheel. 

HEATING  VAPORIZER. — Heat  the  vaporizer  until  the 
lower  part  of  the  feed-pipe  leading  to  the  inlet-valve  is 
too  hot  to  be  comfortably  held  by  hand.  When  the  va- 
porizer is  sufficiently  heated,  pump  up  6  or  8  Ibs. 
gauge  air  pressure  in  the  oil-tank  with  the  hand- 
pump  ;  open  the  oil-cock,  and  then  give  the  fly-wheels  a 
few  turns  with  the  starting  handle.  After  starting, 
move  the  electric  fork-handle  down  as  far  as  it  will  go. 

AIR  SUPPLY. — Set  the  air-relief  valves  for  giving 
about  8  to  10  Ibs.  air  pressure  in  the  oil-tank.  The  most 
suitable  running  pressure  in  a  given  locality  as  indi- 


INSTRUCTIONS   FOR   RUNNING  OIL   ENGINES.       153 

cated  by  the  gauge,  has  to  be  determined  by  experiment. 
With  the  air  pressure  too  low  or  too  high,  the  engine 
may  miss  explosions.  The  best  test  for  this  is  the  color 
of  the  ignition-plug.  When  the  pressure  is  right,  the 
plug  will  be  perfectly  clean.  If  the  plug  is  coated  with 
an  oily  black  substance,  it  is  a  sign  of  too  much  oil — 
that  is,  too  high  a  pressure.  To  stop  the  engine,  turn 
off  the  oil-cock.  When  stopped,  see  that  the  electric 
circuit  is  not  closed,  or  the  battery  energy  will  be 
wasted. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. — If  an  oil  engine  is  working 
properly  and  efficiently,  it  should  run  smoothly  to  the 
eye,  without  knocking  either  in  the  cylinder  or  bear- 
ings. The  piston  should  continue  to  work  clean  and  be 
well  lubricated,  without  any  apparent  carbon  or  gummy 
deposit.  The  exhaust  gases  at  the  outlet-pipe  should 
be  invisible  or  nearly  so.  The  explosion  should  be 
regular  and  should  be  only  reduced  in  pressure  when 
the  governor  is  reducing  the  explosive  charge  and  al- 
lowing only  part  or  none  of  the  charge  of  oil  to  enter 
the  cylinder. 

If  the  piston  is  black  and  gummy,  or  if  the  exhaust 
gases  are  like  smoke,  then  the  combustion  inside  the 
cylinder  is  recognized  as  being  incomplete,  and  the 
cause  should  at  once  be  ascertained  and  remedied. 

Bad  combustion  may  be  due  to  several  reasons,  but  is 
chiefly  caused  by  improper  mixture  of  air  and  gases  in 
the  cylinder,  due  either  to  too  much  oil  entering  into 
the  vaporizer  or  to  insufficient  amount  of  air  being 
drawn  in  mixed  with  the  hydrocarbon  gas.  To  remedy 
this  defect,  examine  the  oil-inlet  valves  or  spraying  de- 


154  OIL    ENGINES. 

vice  carefully ;  also  see  that  air  and  exhaust  valves  are 
allowed  to  drop  freely  on  their  seats,  and  that  springs 
or  other  mechanism  for  closing  the  valves  are  in  good 
shape.  Examine  piston-rings  and  ascertain  that  the 
rings  are  in  good  order  and  are  not  allowing  leakage 
of  air  to  pass  them. 

REGULATION  OF  SPEED. — To  alter  speed  of  the  en- 
gine with  the  hit-and-miss  type  of  governor,  the  spring 
is  strengthened  or  the  weight  reduced  to  increase 
speed.  The  weight  is  effectively  increased  by  moving 
it  toward  the  end  of  the  lever  away  from  the  fulcrum- 
pin,  and  vice  versa  to  reduce  speed.  The  strength  of 
the  spring  is  increased  by  tightening  down  the  thumb- 
screw nut.  With  the  Porter  type  of  governor  where 
counterbalance  with  movable  counterweight  is  pro- 
vided, the  speed  is  accelerated  by  increasing  the  sup- 
plementary weight,  or  by  placing  it  nearer  the  end  of 
the  lever.  If  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  revolv- 
ing weights  is  controlled  by  a  spring  instead  of 
weight,  then  the  speed  is  increased  by  strengthening 
the  spring. 

REVERSING  DIRECTION  OF  ROTATION. — In  order  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation  of  an  explosive  engine, 
it  is  necessary  to  change  the  relative  position  of  the 
cams  actuating  the  air  and  exhaust  valves  and  fuel 
supply  so  as  to  alter  the  periods  of  opening  and  closing 
of  these  valves,  and  also  to  change  the  period  of  fuel 
supply.  In  those  engines  in  which  one  cam  controls 
both  the  air-inlet  valve  and  the  fuel  supply,  the  shift- 
ing of  this  one  cam  alone  effects  the  change  necessary. 
Where  the  fuel  supply  is  operated  separately,  the  cam 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       155 

or  eccentric  controlling  this  mechanism  must  be  moved 
correspondingly  with  the  air-valve  cam. 

The  following  diagrams  give  the  correct  positions 


FIG.  69. 


of  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  valves  when  the 
engine  is  running  in  each  direction,  and  the  cams  as  set 
for  each  case  are  shown  in  Fig.  69,  the  slot  for  key- 
way  in  the  air-inlet  cam  having  been  changed  only. 


156  OIL    ENGINES. 

Where  the  air-inlet-  valve/is  automatic  and  the  ex- 
haust-valve only  is 'actuated  from  the  crank-shaft,  then, 
to  reverse  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  crank-shaft, 
the  position  of  the  exhaust-cam  only  is  changed,  corre- 
sponding to  the  position  as  marked  for  the  exhaust- 
valve  in  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  69. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
REPAIRS. 

OIL  ENGINES  as  made  by  most  of  the  makers  are  of 
substantial  construction,  with  ample  bearing  surfaces, 
and  consequently  require  few  repairs.  The  lower  initial 
pressures  of  explosion  evolved  in  oil  engines  as  com- 
pared with  some  gas  and  gasoline  engines  considerably 
lessens  the  severe  shock  to  the  piston  and  to  the  crank- 
shaft bearings  and  connecting-rod  bearings.  All 
machinery  requires  repairs  more  or  less  according  to 
the  care  that  it  receives,  and  oil  engines  are  not  an  ex- 
ception to  this  rule. 

THE  PISTON  should  be  drawn  out  occasionally ;  this 
is  done  by  uncoupling  the  connecting-rod  crank  end 
bearings  and  pulling  the  piston  out.  Chain-block  is 
sometimes  added  to  the  installation  of  large  engines, 
and  it  is  a  very  useful  adjunct  when  it  is  required  to  take 
out  the  piston  or  when  other  repairs  have  to  be  made. 
Where  no  arrangement  of  this  kind  is  available  when 
the  piston  is  to  be  taken  out,  wooden  packing  is  placed 
in  the  engine-bed,  on  which  the  piston  can  rest  as  it  is 
drawn  out.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  weight  of 
the  piston  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cylinder  does  not 
fall  on  the  piston-rings  or  they  may  thus  be  broken. 


158  OIL    ENGINES. 

With  the  vertical  type  of  engine  the  piston  is  taken  out 
from  the  top,  the  cylinder  head  and  other  parts  having 
been  removed. 

The  piston  should  be  washed  with  kerosene  and  well 
cleaned.  When  putting  piston  back  in  place,  -each  ring 
should  be  put  separately  in  exact  position  in  its  groove 
as  regards  the  dowel-pin  in  piston  groove  before  the 
ring  enters  the  cylinder.  The  piston,  the  rings,  and  the 
inside  of  the  cylinder  must  all  be  carefully  cleaned  and 
well  lubricated  with  proper  oil  before  being  again  put 
in  place.  Where  the  rings  require  cleaning,  this  can 
be  accomplished  by  washing  with  kerosene.  If,  how- 
ever, the  piston-rings  are  to  be  taken  off  the  piston, 
they  must  be  separately  sprung  open  by  having  pieces 
of  sheet  metal  about  1-16"  thick  and  about  J"  wide  in- 
serted between  ring  and  body  of  piston. 

Air  and  exhaust  valves  should  also  be  periodically 
taken  out,  cleaned  and  examined,  and,  if  necessary,  re- 
ground  in.  Powdered  emery  or  glass  powder  is  con- 
sidered satisfactory  to  grind  the  valves  in  with. 

Care  should  be  taken,  in  replacing  valves,  that  they 
are  clean  and  free  from  rust  or  carbon,  and  are  allowed 
to  drop  on  their  seats  freely  and  do  not  stick  in  their 
guides. 

The  crank-shaft  bearings  will  periodically  require 
taking  up  as  they  show  signs  of  wear  and  commence 
to  knock  or  pound.  Usually,  for  this  adjustment, 
liners  are  left  between  the  cap  and  the  lower  half  of 
bearings.  These  liners  can  be  occasionally  reduced  in 
thickness,  so  that  the  cap  is  allowed  to  come  down 
close  on  to  the  shaft.  Great  care  must  be  taken,  in 


REPAIRS.  159 

tightening  down  the  bearing  again  after  adjustment, 
that  it  is  not  bolted  down  too  tight  on  the  shaft  bear- 
ings; otherwise  heating  will  result  and  the  bearings 
and  journal  may  be  cut  and  damaged  in  running. 

The  connecting-rod  bearings  will  require  adjustment 
more  often  than  the  crank-shaft  or    main    bearings. 


FIG.  70. 


When  this  is  necessary,  the  engine  will  be  heard  to 
knock  at  each  revolution,  and  then  the  bearing  should 
be  taken  apart  at  the  crank-pin  bearing  and  about 
1-64"  filed  off.  (See  A,  Fig.  70.)  As  with  the  crank- 
shaft bearings,  great  care,  in  putting  -bearing  back  in 
place,  must  be  exercised,  first  to  see  that  it  is  thor- 
oughly clean  and  free  from  dirt,  and  also,  when  read- 
justed, that  it  has  a  slight  motion  sideways  and  can 
thus  be  moved  by  hand. 

When  fitting  new  piston-ring,  it  is  well  to  place  the 


l6o  OIL    ENGINES. 

ring  in  the  cylinder  correctly;  it  should  have  slight 
space,  about  1-64"  left  for  the  expansion  between  the 
joint  which  will  take  place  when  heated  in  working. 

After  fitting  new  worm  or  spur  gearing  to  the  valve 
motion,  the  positions  of  the  cams  should  be  'tested  by 
turning  the  fly-wheel  over  by  hand.  The  correct  posi- 
tions of  the  cams  are  shown  on  diagram,  Fig.  32. 

The  oil-filter  requires  occasional  renewing;  this  can 
be  made  of  muslin  placed  between  wire  gauze,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  28.  The  oil-supply  pump- valves,  if 
they  consist  of  steel  balls,  can  be  refitted  to  their  seats 
by  being  tapped  when  in  place  with  copper  plug  or 
piece  of  wood.  When  renewing  governor  parts,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  new  part  is  free  and  works 
without  friction;  this  is  very  essential  where  close 
regulation  of  speed  is  required. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

VARIOUS   ENGINES  DESCRIBED. 
THE  CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES. 

FIGURE  71  represents  recent  design  of  high-speed 
electric-light  oil  engine  of  25  effective  or  brake  H.  P. 
This  special  type  of  engine  is  fitted  with  one  heavy  fly- 
wheel on  extended  shaft  and  outside  bearing  instead 
of  the  two  fly-wheels,  one  on  each  side  of  the  engine, 
as  arranged  in  the  smaller  sizes.  The  method  of  va- 
porizing and  igniting  used  with  the  Crossley  engine  is 
fully  described  in  Chapter  I.  devoted  to  that  subject. 

The  fuel  oil-tank  is  placed  against  the  cast-iron  base 
of  the  engine,  and  the  oil  is  pumped  to  the  vaporizer 
in  the  usual  way  by  an  oil-pump  actuated  by  the  cam- 
shaft and  in  regular  fixed  quantities,  but  the  fuel  is 
allowed  to  enter  the  vaporizer  only  in  exactly  the 
proper  quantity,  the  oil  supply  being  controlled  by  the 
special  measuring  device,  which  consists  of  an  inlet 
automatic  valve  leading  to  the  vaporizer  and  an  over- 
flow-pipe leading  back  to  the  oil-tank.  If  the  oil  supply 
from  the  pump  at  any  time  is  greater  than  the  amount 
of  oil  which  should  enter  the  vaporizer,  the  fuel  is  re- 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  .  103 

jected  by  the  oil-measuring  device,  which  is  actuated 
by  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinder  during  the  air- 


)  A  TMOS. 


Diagram  from  the  Crossley  Engine:  Revolutions  per  minute. 
180 ;  M.  E.  P.,  69  Ibs. ;  compression  pressure,  48  Ibs. ; 
maximum  pressure,  240  Ibs. 


ATMOS. 

Diagram  from  Crossley  Engine:  Revolutions  per  minute, 
180;  M.  E.  P.,  50  Ibs.;  compression  pressure,  50  Ibs.; 
maximum  pressure,  180  Ibs. 

suction  period.    The  oil  then  returns  through  the  over- 
flow-pipe to  the  tank. 


164 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  centrifugal   governor   is   actuated  by   separate 
gearing  and  horizontal  shaft  direct  from  the  crank- 


shaft, and  the  governor  regulates  the    speed  of    the 
engine  by  acting  on  the  hit-and-miss  system,  and  con- 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  165 

trols  the  vapor  inlet-valve  to  the  cylinder.  Thus,  if 
the  required  speed  of  the  engirfe  is  exceeded,  the 
vapor-valve  is  not  opened,  and  accordingly  only  air  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  the  air-inlet  valve  on 
the  top  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  actuated  by  eccentric 
from  the  cam-shaft.  No  oil  vapor  is  drawn  into  the 
cylinder,  and  the  next  explosion  is  missed.  The-lamp 
for  heating  the  vaporizer  receives  its  supply  from  the 
oil-tank  placed  against  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  oil 
for  the  lamp  is  supplied  by  a  separate  pump,  both  oil- 
pumps  being  actuated  from  the  same  eccentric. 

THE  CUNDALL  OIL  ENGINE. 

This  oil  engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  72,  and  it 
has  oil-tank  in  the  cast-iron  base  of  engine,  the  fuel  be- 
ing pumped  to  the  vaporizer  in  the  usual  way,  the  oil 
supply  being  regulated  by  a  small  adjustable  thimble 
inside  the  cup  on  the  vaporizer.  The  vaporizer  and 
tube  are  heated  by  separate  lamp  supplied  from  oil-tank 
placed  above  the  engine  by  gravity  feed.  Both  air  and 
exhaust  valves  are  actuated  from  the  horizontal  cam- 
shaft in  the  usual  way.  The  centrifugal  governor  is 
operated  by  bevel-gearing  from  the  cam-shaft  and  con- 
trols the  speed  by  acting  on  the  oil-inlet  valve. 


THE  CAMPBELL  OIL  ENGINE. 

Fig.  73  illustrates  larger-sized  engine  fitted  with  one 
fly-wheel  only  and  outside  bearing  suitable  for  electric- 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED. 


i67 


lighting  purposes.     The  vaporizing  and  igniting  appa- 
ratus of  this  type  is  described  in  Chapter  I.    The  fuel 


ATI/OS., 


Light-load  diagram  taken  from  Campbell  engine :  (Cylinder, 
9.5"  in  diameter;  stroke,  18";  revolutions  per  minute,  210; 
M.  E.  P.,  55.9  Ibs. 


ATMOS 


Full-load  diagram  from  Campbell  Engine:  Cylinder,  9.5"  in 
diameter;  18"  stroke;  revolutions  per  minute,  210; 
M.  E.  P.,  69.25 ;  compression  pressure,  55  Ibs. ;  maximum 
pressure,  232  Ibs. 


oil-tank  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder  and  the 


l68  OIL    ENGINES. 

fuel  is  fed  by  gravitation  to  the  vaporizer  and  to  the 
heating  lamp,  there  being  no  oil-pumps.  There  are  only 
two  valves — the  air-inlet  valve,  which  is  automatic,  and 
the  exhaust-valve,  which  is  operated  by  the  cam,  which 
is  actuated  by  spur-gearing  from  the  crank-shaft,  the 
necessary  power  to  open  the  valve  being  transmitted 
through  the  horizontal  rod  in  compression.  The  cen- 
trifugal governor  is  mounted  on  separate  horizontal 
shaft,  and  is  actuated  by  separate  gearing  from  the 
crank-shaft.  The  speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by 
suitable  device  which  is  inserted  by  the  action  of  the 
governor  between  the  exhaust-lever  and  the  stationary 
bracket  when  the  normal  speed  is  exceeded,  thus  hold- 
ing open  the  exhaust-valve  and  preventing  any  of  the 
oil  vapor  and  air  from  entering  the  cylinder  during  the 
suction  period. 


PRIESTMAN    OIL   ENGINE. 

Fig.  74  represents  this  type  of  engine  as  made  by 
Messrs.  Priestman  in  the  United  States. 

The  design  of  this  engine  is  upon  the  "  straight  line" 
principle,  and  differs  from  the  other  engines  herein 
described.  In  this  engine,  both  the  fly-wheels  are  ar- 
ranged to  be  inside  of  the  main  shaft  bearings  instead 
of  at  each  side  of  the  frame,  as  is  usual.  The  makers 
claim  great  advantages  for  this  design,  inasmuch  as  the 
strain  on  the  bearings  is  minimized.  The  crank-pin  is 
placed  between  the  two  fly-wheels,  the  hub  of  each  fly- 


VARIOUS    ENGINES    DESCRIBED. 


169 


wheel  becoming  the  cheek  of  the  crank.  The  oil-tank 
is  placed  in  the  bed  of  the  engine ;  an  air  pressure  of 
five  or  six  pounds  is  always  maintained  in  this  tank  by 
means  of  the  separate  air-pump  actuated  from  the 
cam-shaft  by  eccentric.  The  vaporizer  spraying  and 
igniting  devices  are  fully  described  in  Chapter  I. 
The  governor  is  driven  by  belt  from  the  crank-shaft 


FIG.  74- 


and  is  of  the  centrifugal  or  pendulum  type.  The 
speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by  suitable  mechanism 
acting  on  the  throttle-valve  regulating  the  supply  of 
oil  and  air  entering  the  vaporizer.  The  air-inlet  valve 
to  the  cylinder  is  automatic,  the  exhaust-valve  being 
actuated  by  horizontal  rod. operated  from  a  cam  placed 


170 


OIL    ENGINES. 


on  the  cam-shaft.     This  engine,  it  is  claimed,  requires 
little  or  no  lubrication  for  the  piston. 

THE  MIETZ  &  WEISS  ENGINE 

This  engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  75.     It  works  not, 
as  all  other  engines  described  herein,  on  the  Beau  de 


120 


too 


to 


ZBr.  T9e.r  £&.  vn.. 


*&o  re  c  ?/77 


pj  02  O.3  <W»  O.&  o 

INDICATOR  CARD  OF  THE   PRIESTMAN   ENGINE. 


Rochas  cycle,  but  on  the  two-cycle  principle — that  is, 
an  explosion  is  obtained  in  the  cylinder  at  each  revo- 
lution of  the  crank-shaft.  The  oil-tank  is  placed  above 
the  cylinder,  and  fuel  is  supplied  to  the  engine  partly 
by  gravitation — the  quantity  injected,  however,  into  the 


VARIOUS    ENGINES    DESCRIBED. 


171 


cylinder  being  regulated  by  small  oil-supply  pump.  The 
governor  is  of  the  inertia  type,  and  acts  directly  on  the 
pump  on  the  hit-and-miss  principle.  If  the  speed  of 
the  engine  exceeds  the  standard  number  of  revolutions, 
the  governor  causes  the  charge  of  oil  which  otherwise 
would  enter  the  combustion  chamber  or  cylinder  to  be 


FIG.  75- 


missed,  and  no  explosion  follows.  The  governor  itself 
is  actuated  from  the  crank-shaft  by  eccentric  and  bell 
crank  direct.  The  oil  is  vaporized  in  a  hot  chamber 
placed  at  the  back  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  heated  for  a 
few  minutes  in  starting  by  independent  lamp;  after- 
ward the  heat  created  by- 'constant  compression  main- 
tains the  igniter  at  proper  temperature  automatically. 


I72  -OIL    ENGINES. 

The  compression  of  the  air  is  generated  in  the  crank- 
chamber  and  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  at  a 
slight  pressure  during  each  outstroke  of  the  piston. 
The  exhaust  opening  is  automatically  uncovered  by  the 
piston,  the  exhaust  passage  being  made  in  the  cylinder 
wall.  As  the  piston  travels  toward  the  end  of  the 


Indicator  diagram  taken  from  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  Engine: 
diameter  of  cylinder,  12" ;  stroke,  12" ;  revolutions  per 
minute,  300 ;  scale,  100 ;  B.  H.  P.,  20. 


stroke,  this  passage  is  uncovered,  and  the  produces  of 
combustion  are  free  to  pass  to  the  exhaust-pipe,  while 
the  piston  travels  to  the  end  of  the  stroke  and  the  first 
part  of  the  return  stroke  until  the  port  is  again  covered, 
when  the  compression  period  commences  for  the  next 
explosion.  These  engines  are  now  being  made  of  from 
i  to  40  H.  P. 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  173 


HORNSBY-AKROYD  OIL  ENGINE. 

Fig.  76  shows  this  engine  as  made    by  the  De  La 
Vergne  Refrigerating  Company,  of  New  York.     It  is, 
also  made  by  the  patentees  at  Grantham,  England,  and 
in  France  and  Germany. 

The  Hornsby-Akroyd  engine  is  made  in  sizes  of  i^ 
to  50  H.  P.,  all  sizes  being  made  of  the  horizontal  type. 
The  smaller  sizes  are  made  of  the  vertical  type  also,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  77.  The  fuel  oil-tank  is  placed  in  the 
base  of  the  engine  and  the  fuel  is  delivered  to  the  va- 
porizer by  the  small  pump  actuated  from  the  cam- 
shaft by  the  lever  which  also  actuates  the  air-inlet 
valve.  The  oil  supply  is  raised  to  the  vaporizer  valve- 
box  in  regular  quantities,  but  the  oil  is  only  allowed  to 
enter  the  vaporizer  to  the  required  amount,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  oil  flowing  back  to  the  tank  through 
the  by-pass  valve  which  is  regulated  by  the  governor. 
Thus,  if  the  speed  of  the  fly-wheel  exceeds  the  normal 
number  of  revolutions  for  which  the  engine  is  set,  the 
governor  mechanism  opens  the  by-pass  oil-valve,  allow- 
ing part  of  the  oil  to  flow  back  to  the  oil-tank,  and  ac- 
cordingly reduces  the  charge  entering  the  vaporizer, 
and  consequently  the  mean  pressure  for  one  or  more 
explosions  is  reduced  in  the  cylinder.  The  governor  is 
of  the  Porter  type,  actuated  by  gearing  from  the  cam- 
shaft. The  method  of  vaporizing  and  igniting  is  fully 
described  in  Chapter  I.  .Both  air-inlet  and  exhaust 


VARIOUS    ENGINES    DESCRIBED.  175 

valves  are  actuated  from  the  cam-shaft,  these  valves 


FIG.  77- 

being  placed  on  the  side  of  the  engine.     The  air  inlet 
in  this  type  is  different  from  the  other  engines   de- 


OIL    ENGINES. 


scribed.    In  this  case  the  air  enters  not  through  the  va- 
porizer, but  by  means  of  separate  valve-chamber. 


ATMOS. 


Diagram  taken  from  Hornsby-Akroyd  Engine:  M.  E.  P.,  48 
Ibs. ;  compression  pressure,  50  Ibs. ;  maximum  pressure, 
160  Ibs. ;  revolutions  per  minute,  185 ;  cylinder,  18.5" 
diameter;  24"  stroke;  full  load. 


Diagram  taken  from  Hornsby-Akroyd  Engine :  Diameter  of 
cylinder,  11";  stroke,  15";  M.  E.  P.,  49.5  Ibs.;  compression 
pressure,  60  Ibs. ;  revolutions  per  minute,  230 ;  consump- 
tion oi  oil  W.  W.,  150°  F.  0.8  Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour. 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  177 


THE  DIESEL  MOTOR. 

Fig.  78  represents  the  Diesel  motor  as  it  is  being 
built  in  the  United  States.  It  is  of  the  vertical  type, 
and  is  designed  with  closed  crank-chamber,  which 
forms  the  bed  of  the  engine  and  to  which  the  cylinder  is 
bolted.  The  air-pumps  which  compress  the  air  for  the 
purpose  of  injecting  the  fuel  at  a  greater  pressure  than 
that  of  compression  in  the  main  cylinder  are  placed 
inside  of  the  crank-chamber  and  are  actuated  by  rods 
from  the  main  piston.  The  fuel  oil-tank  is  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  base  on  the  one  side  and  the  air-pressure 
tanks  are  placed  in  the  base  plate.  The  air-inlet  valve 
to  the  cylinder  is  automatic.  The  exhaust-valve,  the 
fuel  inlet-valve  and  the  starting-valve  are  each  actu- 
ated from  gearing  on  a  horizontal  shaft,  which  is  ac- 
tuated by  two  sets  of  bevel-gearing  and  spur-gearing 
from  the  crank-shaft,  at  half  speed. 

The  operation  of  the  engine  is  on  the  ordinary 
Beau  de  Rochas  or  four-cycle  principle,  and  is  as 
follows : 

The  receiver  is  charged  with  air  at  the  desired  maxi- 
mum pressure  (about  600  pounds  per  square  inch). 
This  is  accomplished  the  first  time  of  starting  by  con- 
necting the  receiver  to  a  tank  of  liquid  carbonic  acid 
gas,  from  which  the  necessary  pressure  is  obtained. 
The  reservoir  being  once  charged,  the  receiver  is  main- 
tained afterward  constantly  at  a  maximum  pressure 
by  the  auxiliary  air-pumps. 

To  start  the  engine  the  piston  is  placed  at  the  top  of 


I?8  OIL    ENGINES. 

its  stroke.     The  hand-starting  lever  is  set  so  that  the 
valve  gear  is  on  the  two-cycle  and  the  starting-valve 


is  opened  at  each  revolution.    The  oil-pump  is  operated 
a  few  strokes  by  hand,  whereby  the  space  around  the 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  179 

stem  of  the  fuel-valve  is  supplied  with  oil,  this  space 
being  connected  to  the  receiver  by  a  small  pipe.  When 
communication  between  the  starting-valve  and  the  re- 
ceiver is  made,  by  opening  a  cock  by  hand,  the  pressure 
from  the  receiver  acts  upon  the  piston  and  starts  the 
latter  downward.  After  several  down  strokes  the 
operator  shifts  the  lever  and  throws  the  fuel-valve  into 
gear  on  the  four-cycle.  The  momentum  acquired  car- 
ries the  piston  through  an  up  stroke,  and  compresses 
the  contents  of  the  main  cylinder  to  about  520  pounds 
per  square  inch,  whereby  they  are  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  upward  of  1000°  Fahr.  As  the  piston  starts  to 
make  another  down  stroke  by  momentum,  the  fuel- 
valve  opens,  and  the  600  pounds  of  air  pressure  in  the 
receiver  acting  upon  the  fuel  forces  the  latter  into  the 
heated  contents  of  the  cylinder,  thereby  causing  com- 
bustion to  occur,  and  power  to  be  developed  through- 
out the  second  down  stroke ;  the  fuel-valve  closes  at 
about  one-tenth  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  so  that  the 
heat  developed  is  applied  with  a  high  degree  of  expan- 
sion. On  the  next  up  stroke  the  exhaust-valve  is 
opened,  permitting  the  cylinder  to  exhaust  itself 
against  the  atmosphere.  During  the  next  down  stroke 
of  the  piston  the  inlet-valve  connecting  with  the  atmos- 
phere supplies  the  cylinder  with  air.  This  is  com- 
pressed on  the  return  stroke,  and  oil  again  introduced, 
and  thence  the  operation  of  the  engine  proceeds  regu- 
larly, the  air-pump  constantly  supplying  compressed 
air  through  the  pipe  to  the  space  about  the  stem  of 
the  fuel-valve,  which,  being  constantly  connected  to  the 


OIL   ENGINES. 

receiver,  maintains  the  latter  at  the  maximum  pres- 
sure. The  main  cylinder  and  air-pumps  are.  water- 
jacketed,  and  both  the  head  of  the  main  cylinder  and 
those  of  the  air  pumps  have  cooling  water  circulating 
through  them.  Both  the  main  and  air  cylinders  are  lu- 
bricated by  splashing  from  the  crank  pit.  The  speed  of 
the  engine  is  governed  by  an  ordinary  centrifugal 
governor,  which  controls  the  length  of  the  stroke  of 


INDICATOR  CARD  FROM  THE  DIESEL  MOTOR. 


the  fuel-pump.  The  engine  is  provided  with  two 
heavy  fly-wheels  placed  each  side  of  the  main  bearings. 
The  distinctive  feature  of  the  Diesel  engine  is  its  high 
thermal  efficiency,  which  is  caused  partly  by  the  high 
pressure  of  compression  of  the  air  in  the  cylinder, 
but  mainly  by  its  slow  and  controlled  combustion. 
When  the  fuel  is  injected,  the  cylinder  volume  is  de- 
creased to  about  one-fifteenth  of  the  total  volume. 


VARIOUS   ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  l8l 

This  allows  of  a  very  much  larger  expansion  of  the 
heated  gases  as  compared  with  engines  of  the  explosive 
type.  The  Diesel  engine  has  created  great  interest 
in  engineering  circles  the  world  over,  and  many  tests 
have  been  made  of  it.  Professor  Denton,  of  the 
Stevens  Institute,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  in  1898  conducted 
a  series  of  tests  on  this  engine,  and  according  to  his 
report  of  those  tests  the  consumption  of  fuel  was 
0.534  pounds  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour  at  full  load,  and  at 
less  than  half  load  0.72  pounds  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour. 
This  is  equivalent  to  a  thermal  efficiency  (on  the 
I.  H.  P.)  of  37.7  per  cent. 

The  following  is  the  heat-balance  table  as  shown 
by  Professor  Denton : 

PER  CENT. 

Heat  of  combustion  accounted  for  by  indicated 

power 37.2 

Removed  by  jacket 35.4 

Remainder . 27.4 


Total  heat  of  combustion 100.0 

The  Diesel  engine  has  just  received  the  Grand  Prix 
at  the  Paris  World's  Fair. 


PORTABLE  ENGINES. 

Oil  engines  of  the  portable  type  are  made  by  nearly 
all  the  makers  of  the  fixed  horizontal  types  herein 
mentioned. 


1 82 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  chief  advantage  of  the  portable  oil  engine  as 
compared  with  the  steam  engine  is  the  small  bulk  of 
fuel  used  and  the  small  quantity  of  water  required. 

The  portable  type,  as  to  its  method  of  working  and 
its  details,  is  usually  made  similar  to  the  fixed  type  of 
engine,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  constructed  of 
lighter  material.  One  of  the  most  important  features 


FIG.  79. 


in    the    portable    type    is    that    of   the    cooling-water 
apparatus. 

This  device  is  differently  constructed  by  the  various 
makers.  Fig.  79  illustrates  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  type ; 
in  this  the  circulating  water  is  pumped  rapidly  from 
tank  placed  under  the  engine-bed  through  the  cylinder 
water-jacket,  and  thence  to  the  top  of  a  vertical  gradier 
work  formed  of  wooden  slats  or  boards,  down  which 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  183 

the  water  trickles.  Air  is  drawn  upward  through 
these  wooden  slats  simultaneously ;  this  draft  of  air  is 
caused  by  the  exhaust  gases  which  are  discharged  to 
the  atmosphere  above  the  gradier  work,  thus  inducing 
a  current  of  air  through  the  gradier  work  in  a  way 
somewhat  similar  to  the  arrangement  of  the  steam  ex- 
haust of  a  locomotive.  With  this  arrangement,  only 
about  50  gallons  of  water  are  required  to  maintain  the 
proper  temperature  of  the  cylinder. 

With  other  types  of  portable  engines  the  water  is 
cooled  by  being  conducted  over  a  series  of  horizontal 
trays,  a  current  of  cooling  air  being  induced  to  pass 
over  each  of  these  horizontal  trays. 


184 


OIL    ENGINES. 


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ENGINES. 

Diameter  of  cylinder,  i 
Stroke,  inches  

<t! 

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Brake  horsepower.  .  . 
Total  oil  used  per  hoi 
Oil  per  BHP  per  hoi 
Cost  per  hour  (total), 
"  per  BHP  per  hour, 
HALF  POWER  TRI^ 

Brake  horsepower.  .  . 
Total  oil  used  per  hoi 
Oil  per  BHP  per  hoi 
Cost  per  hour  (total), 
"  per  BHPper  hour, 

5 
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MAXIMUM  POWER  TF 

Brake  horsepower.  .  . 

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ENGINES. 

Duration  of  trial  hours  — 
Time  taken  to  start  full  load,  miuutes.  . 

BRAKE  HORSEPOWER  : 

£      :      :  : 

c    . 

>      :      :  : 

•         ' 

%  : 

:£ 

A 

s_ 

p> 
ffipq 

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i* 

Circumference  of  flywheel,  effec 
Load  on  brake,  Ib  
Spring  balance  reading,  Ib  
Net  load  on  brake,  Ib  
Revolutions  per  minute,  mean.  . 
Brake  horsepower  

INDICATED  HORSEPOWER 

Diameter  of  cylinder,  inches.  .  . 
Stroke,  inches.  .  .  
Mean  effective  pressure,  Ib.  per 
Explosions  per  minute,  mean  .  .  . 
Indicated  horsepower  
Mechanical  efficiency  

OIL  CONSUMPTION  : 

13 
1 

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O 

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O 

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TABLE  VII. — CALORIFIC  POWER  OF  VARIOUS  DESCRIPTIONS 
OF  PETROLEUM,  ETC.     (B.  REDWOOD.) 


Description  of  Oil. 

Specific  Grav- 
ity at  o°  C. 

Chemical  Com- 
position. 

Coefficient  of 
Expansion. 

Am't  of  Water 
Evaporated  Per 
Unit  of  Fuel.  | 

d 
e.t! 

1~ 

wS 

10,  I  80 

10,223 

9.963 

10,672 
9.771 

10,121 
9,708 
IO,O2O 
10,458 

c 

o 

•e 

u 

83-5 
84.3 

82.0 

84.9 
83-4 
84.0 

86.9. 

85.7 

86.2 

79-5 
80.4 
86.2 
82.2 

85-3 
80.3 

82.0 
87.4 
86.3 
86.6 

87.1 
87.1 
87.1 

I* 

ffi* 

C 

V 

bo 
X 
0 

Heavy  Petroleum  from 
West  Virginia  

0.873 
0.8412 
0.816 

0.886 
0.820 
0.786 

0.912 
0.892 
0.861 
0.829 
0.892 

0-955 
0.870 

0.885 
0.911 

1.044 
0.822 
0.844 
0.938 

0.928 
0.923 
0.985 

13-3 
14.1 

14.8 

13-7 
14.7 

13-4 
ii.  8 

12.  0 
13-3 
13-6 
12.7 
II.4 
12.  1 

12.6 
II-5 

7.6 
12.5 
I3.6 
12.3 

ii.  7 

12.0 
IO.4 

3-2 
1.6 
3-2 

1.04 
1.9 

1.8 

J-3 

2-3 

0-5 
6.9 
6.9 
2.4 
5-7 

2.1 

(N.  0.) 
8.2 
(0.  S.  N.) 

10.4 

O.I 
O.I 

I.I 

1.2 
0.9 

2-5 

0.00072 
0.000839 
0.00084 

0.000721 
0.000868 
0.000706 

0.000767 
0.000793 
0.000858 
0.000843 
0.000772 
0.000641 
0.000813 

0.000775 
0.000896 

0.000743 
0.000817 
0.000724 
0.000681 

0.00091 
0.000769 
0.0008685 

14.58 

14-55 
14.05 

15.30 
14.14 
13.96 

14.30 
14.48 

I5-36 

Light  Petroleum  from 
West  Virginia. 

Light  Petroleum  from 
Pennsylvania  

Heavy  Petroleum  from 
Pennsylvania  

American  Petroleum.. 
Petroleum  from  Parma 
Petroleum  from    Pech- 
elbronn        .      ... 

Petroleum   from  Pech- 
elbronn 

Petroleum    from 
Schwabweiler  
Petroleum    from 
Schwabweiler  

Petroleum    from   Han- 
over   

Petroleum    from   Han- 
over 

Petroleum    from    East 
Galicia             

14.23 

14.79 
12.24 

12.77 

16.40 

15-55 

15.02 
14.75 

IO,O85 

10,231 
9,046 

8.916 
11,700 
11,460 
10,800 

10,700 

IO,83I 

10,081 

Petroleum    from  West 
Galicia  

Shale  Oil  from  Ardeche 
Coal    Tar    from     Paris 
Gasworks    

Petroleum  from  Balak- 
hany   

Light  Petroleum  from 
Baku. 

Heavy  Petroleum  from 
Baku.           

Petroleum    residues 
from  Baku  Factories 
Petroleum  from  Java.  . 
Heavy  Oil  from  Ogaio 

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Description  of 
Petroleum,  etc 

Heavy  Virginia 
Petroleum  (135 
m.)  

•28-     T*  i    •      i    • 

.S>s.  :-*  %  o  :    &H  : 

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£t^  ^Sa   ^g 

MPL,  g       M  >  p       o>  iJ 

a      ^      w 

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c2x   | 

C  aJ  d      o     2      3 

**g  S 

>,5^  fc 

^gs   - 

m  >  3      ^     -       3 

WCB 
i—, 

East  Galicia  Pe- 
troleum   

West  Galicia  Pe- 
troleum   

i88 


OIL   ENGINES. 


TABLE  IX.— OIL  FUEL.     (B.  REDWOOD.) 


Chemical  Compo- 

Heating 

sition. 

Power. 

Locality. 

Fuel. 

Sp. 
Gr.at 

Actual 

Calcu- 

Car- 

Hy- 
dro- 

Oxy- 

Calori- 
metric 

lated 
(Ib.  C. 

gen. 

(Ib.  C. 

Heat 

Units?.) 

Units.) 

Russian. 

Petrol  refuse 

o  028 

87  I 

„., 

2 

Astatki 

o  o 

8il  Qd 

I"*    06 

2 

IO  ^J.O 

1  1  626 

Caucasian  

Heavy  Crude 

0.938 

86.6 

84.9 

12.3 
11.63 

.1 

•  4S8 

10,800 
10,328 

11,200 

"     (Novorossisk) 

Pennsylvanian     .... 

<«            « 

0.886 

84.0 

13.7 

1 

10  672 

American  

«<            <« 

86.  894 

13.  IO7 

10  912 

i< 

Refined 

8^.401 

i4.2l6 

O.  2Q^ 

II  04^ 

<i 

Double    " 

80.583 

15.  101 

4.316 

II,  086 

it 

Crude      " 

83.012 

13.889 

3-099 

11,094 



TABLE  X. — CALORIFIC  POWER  OP  CRUDE  PETROLEUM.    (B.  REDWOOD.) 


Sp.  Gr. 

Calories. 

Heavy  Lubricating  Oil,  White  Oak,  ) 
Western  Virginia                                 f 

0.873 

10,180 

Light  Illuminating  Oil,  Oil  Creek,  Pa. 

0.816 

9>963 

Oil   from  Dandang,   Leo  Rembang,  ) 
Java.                                                         f 

0.923 

10,831 

Light  Oil  from  Baku 

0.884 

ii  460 

Oil  from  Western  Galicia 

0.88^ 

10,231 

"         "      Eastern       "      

0.870 

10,005 

ii         K      Parma  

0.786 

IO,12I 

"         "     Schwabweiler  

0.861 

10,458 

INDEX. 


189 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

ABEL  oil-tester 90 

Actual  horse-power 63 

Air     compressing,     horse- 
power required 125 

Air-compressor   at    differ- 
ent  altitudes 131 

Air-compressors   123 

Air  inlet  choked 77 

Air-inlet    valve..  12,    23,    39, 
57,  61,   78,   145,    165,    1 68 
Air-inlet       valve,       auto- 
matic  12,   77,    156 

Air-pump 13 

Air-receiver 177 

Air  suction,  noise  of 122 

Air-suction  pipe 78 

Air- supply  ( Campbell ) 151 

Air-supply  (Crossley)  ....  149 
Air-supply  (Priestman)..  .152 

Asbestos 58 

Assembling  oil  engines...   53 
Atmospheric  line 70,  71 

BALANCE  weights 30 

Balancing   crank-shaft....  27 
Balancing  fly-wheel 30 


PAGE 

Balancing  formula 29 

Bearings  caps 55 

Bearings,  crank-shaft. 42,   158 

Bearings,  outside 161,  165 

Bearings,  pressure  on. .  .42,  43 

Bearings,  scraping  in 54 

Beau  de  Rochas  Cycle, 

15,  16,  76,  177 

Belt  centres 115 

Belt,  link 113,  115 

Belt,  loose 115 

Belt,  size  of 116 

Benzine i 

B.  H.  P.,  to  calculate 65 

Brake,  attaching 64 

Brake,  horse-power 63,  64 

CAMPBELL,  governing,, 

13,  151,  168 

Campbell    oil    engine    de- 
scribed   165 

Campbell    starting 150 

Cams 37 

Cams,    setting 60 

Circulating  water-pipes...  97 
Clerk,  Dugeld 87 


190 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Clutches,  friction 137 

Clutches,    friction,    advan- 
tages of 137 

Clutches,    friction,    B    and 

C  type 138 

Coal  oil i 

Combustion,  bad 89,  153 

Combustion,  complete 90 

Compression  (Diesel)  .  .  .6,  25 
Compression      in      crank- 
chamber.  172 

Compression,  increasing. ..  79 
Compression,  irregular...  19 

Compression  line 76,  78 

Compression  pressure 25 

Connecting-rod  bearings. .  56 

Connecting-rods 30 

Connecting-rods,  diameter  33 
Connecting-rods,  phosphor 

bronze 31 

Cooling  surface 23 

Cooling  water 19,  183 

Cooling  water-tanks 96 

Copper  ring 58 

Crank-pin 42,    168 

Crank-pin  dimensions  ....  42 

Crank-pin,  size  of 26 

Crank -shaft 25 

Crank-shaft,  balancing. ...  27 
Crank-shaft  bearings.  .42,  158 
Crank-shaft,  strength  of .  .  26 
Crossley  engine  described.  161 

Crossley  governing. 164 

Crossley  measuring  device.  161 

Crossley  starting 148 

Cundall  engine  described.  .165 


PAGE 
Cycles,  different,  discussed  18 

Cylinder  clearance 23 

Cylinder  cover 23 

Cylinder  lubricating  oil...  140 

Cylinder  lubricators 38 

Cylinder,     two     or     more 

parts 57 

Cylinders,  different  types.  22 

DENTON,  Prof 181 

Developed  horse-power...  63 

Diagram,  analyzing 77 

Diagram,  good  working.  .  76 

Diesel  governing 180 

Diesel  heat  balance 181 

Diesel  motor 6,   177 

Diesel   starting 177 

Direct-connected       engine 

and  dynamo 117 

Direction   of  rotation,   re- 
versing    154 

Distance-pieces 55 

Draining,   water 104 

Dynamo  fly-wheel 115 

Dynamometer  or  brake  —  64 

EFFECTIVE  horse-power ....  63 
Efficiencies,  thermal,  com- 
pared   87 

Efficiency,  increase  of 83 

Efficiency,  mechanical.  .51,  86 

Efficiency,  thermal 86 

Electric  igniter 5,  15,  152 

Electric  lighting  plant,  in- 
stallation of 113 

Engine    (  Campbell ) 165 


INDEX. 


191 


PAGE 

Engine  (Cundall) 165 

Engine  frame 42 

Engine  (Hornsby-Akroyd)  140 
Engine  (Mietz  and  Weiss)  170 

Engine,  portable 181 

Engine  (Priestman) 168 

Engines    (Crossley) 161 

Engines  driving  dynamos,  in 
Engines,  electric  lighting. .  46 

Engines,   knocking 159 

Engines,  regulation  of 117 

Engines,   running,   general 

remarks 153 

Engines,  running,  light...  145 

Erecting  oil  engines 53 

Exhaust  bends 41 

Exhaust,  choked 83 

Exhaust  gases 90,  153 

Exhaust  line 76,  83 

Exhaust  silencers 100 

fcxhaust  temperature no 

Exhaust  valve 13 

Exhaust  valve,  opening  of.   76 

Exhaust  washer 101 

Expansion  line 76,   81 

Explosion 20 

Explosive  mixture 10,   15 

FILTER  oil 49,  146,  160 

Flashing  point  of  oil I 

Flashing  point  to  test 90 

Flickering  of  incandescent 

lights 119 

Fluctuation  in  speed 37 

Fly-wheels 35,   119 

Fly-wheels,  energy  of 53 


PAGE 

Fly-wheels  for  dynamo..  115 
Fly-wheels,  formula  for.  . .  37 
Fly-wheels,  keying  on.  ...  57 
Fly-wheels,  peripheral 

speed 36 

Formulae 20,  21, 

26,  29,  33,  37,  40,  86,  125 

Foundations 113 

Four-cycle 15 

Frame,  engine 42 

Friction-clutches   137 

Friction-clutches,      advan- 
tages of 137 

Friction-clutches,     B     and 

C  type 138 

Frost,  provision  for 99 

Fuel      consumption.       See 

Tables. 
Fuel-consumption  test....  87 

Fuel  injection 9,   180 

Fuel  oil-tank 13,  49,  161 

165,  167,  169,  170,  173,  177 

GASES,   exhaust 90 

Gear,  skew 43 

Gear,  spur 43,  160 

Gear,   starting 21 

Governing   (Campbell), 

13,  151,  168 
Governing    (centrifugal), 

15,  164,  165,  168 

Governing    (Crossley) 164 

Governing  devices 44 

Governing    (Diesel) 180 

Governing       (Mietz      and 
Weiss) .......... 171 


192 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Governing  (Priestman), 

15,  169 
Governor,         hit-and-miss 

type 48 

Governor,  hunting 148 

Governor  parts,  renewing.  160 
Governor,  pendulum  type..  4-5 
Governor,  Porter  type. ...  173 

Gravitation   (fuel) 12,  168 

Gravitation  system 96 

HEAT,  utilization  of  waste.  107 

Heated  air 1 1 

Heat  balance 87 

Heat  balance    (Diesel)  . . .  181 

Heating  lamp 8,  n,  12 

Heating  lamp  instructions.  141 
Horizontal  and  vertical 

types 50 

Hornsby-Akroyd,    instruc- 
tions for  running 140 

Hornsby-Akroyd,    method 

of  vaporizing 9 

Hornsby-Akroyd    oil    sup- 
ply   173 

Horse-power 63,  66 

ICE  and  refrigerating  ma- 
chines  133 

Igniter,  electric 5,  15,  152 

Igniter  (Hornsby-Akroyd)     2 

Igniters 2,   23 

Igniters    (flame) 2 

Igniters,  heating 61 

Ignition  140 


PAGE 

Ignition   (electric) 2,  7 

Ignition     (high     compres- 
sion)       2 

Ignition  (hot  surface)  2,  7,  IO 
Ignition   (hot  tube), 

2,  7,  n,  148,  151 

Ignition  line 76 

Ignition  line,   late 80 

Ignition  line,  too  early...  79 

Ignition,  regulating 80 

Ignition,  retarding. .......  81 

Impulse  on  piston 17 

Incandescent  lights 116 

Incandescent   lights,    flick- 
ering of 119 

Indicated  horse-power. ...  66 
Indicator  attaching  to  en- 
gine   71 

Indicator  cock 66 

Indicator,  Crosby 67 

Indicator  diagram 48,  75 

Indicator     diagram,     light 

spring 88 

Indicator,    diagram    meas- 
uring    73 

Indicator  in  place 64 

Indicator,     left     or     right 

hand 70 

Indicator  reducing  motion.  71 

Indicator  springs 69 

Ingredients     for     founda- 
tions  113 

Instructions     for     running 

Hornsby-Akroyd 140 

Instructions     for     running 
oil  engines 139 


INDEX. 


193 


JUNK  rings. 


PAGE 

•:•    55 


KNOCKING  in  engine 159 

LEAKAGE  in  crank-chamber  19 
Leakage  of  piston-rings. 61,  78 

Leakage  of  valves 78 

Leakage  of  water  into  cyl- 
inder   63 

Lights,  incandescent 116 

Line,  atmospheric 70,  71 

Line,   compression 76,   78 

Line,    exhaust .76,   83 

Line,  expansion 76,  81 

Link  belt 113,  115 

Loose  belt .115 

Lubricating  cylinder  oil ...  140 

Lubricators,    cylinder 38 

Lubricators,   sight   feed. . .  38 

MEASURING  device  (Cross- 
ley)  161 

Mechanical   efficiency.  ..51,  86 

M.  E.  P 21,  67,  81 

M.  E.  P.  gas  and  gasoline 

engines 22 

M.  E.  P.  regulated 47 

Method       of       vaporizing 

(Crossley) n 

Method       of       vaporizing 

(Campbell) 12 

Method       of       vaporizing 

(Hornsby-Akroyd) ...     9 
Method       of       vaporizing 

(Priestman) 13 


PAGE 
Method       of       governing 

(Campbell) 168 

Method       of       governing 

(Diesel) 180 

Method       of       governing 

(Mietz  and  Weiss)  ...  171 
Method       of       governing 

(Priestman) 169 

Mietz    and    Weiss    engine 

described 170 

Mietz    and    Weiss    engine 

governing 171 

Mixture  oil,  vapor  and  air.  14 
Motor,  Diesel 6,  177 


NORRIS,  William 26 

OIL  cylinder,  lubricating.  .140 
Oil    engines,    driving    dy- 
namos  in 

Oil     engines,     instructions 

for  running 139 

Oil  filter 49,    146,   160 

Oil  inj ection 9 

Oil   inlet 12 

Oil  measurer  (Crossley)..   II 

Oil-pump 9,  143,  165 

Oil-pump,  testing 147 

Oil  supply    (Campbell)  ...  151 
Oil  supply   (Crossley)  ....  164 

Oil  supply  (Diesel) 177 

Oil    supply    (Hornsby-Ak- 
royd)   173 

Oil  supply,  limiting 89 


194 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Oil     supply      (Mietz     and 

Weiss) 170 

Oil-supply  pipes... 57,  61,  146 
Oil  supply  (Priestman)  ...   15 

Oil-supply  pump 171 

Oil-supplying  apparatus...   51 

Oil,  viscosity  of 93 

Otto  cycle 15,  76 

Otto   patent 19 

PARAFFIN  (Scotch) i 

Petroleum I 

Petroleum  (crude) 2,  20 

Petroleum.    See  Tables. 

Pipe,  air-suction 78 

Piston 33,  153 

Piston,  fitting 55 

Piston  lubrication, 

50,  158,  170,  1 80 
Piston-rings, 

34,  55,  56,  154,  158,  159 

Piston   speed 34 

Piston,  taking  out 158 

Planimeters 72 

Planimeters,  directions  for 

using 74 

Plants,  pumping 131 

Portable    engines i$i 

Portable  engines,  construc- 
tion of 182 

Portable  engines    (Horns- 

by-Akroyd) 182 

Port  openings 39 

Pressure  of  explosion 20 

Pressure  on  bearings.  ..42,  43 
Priestman  engine 168 


PAGE 
Priestman,  governing. .  15,  169 

P'riestman,  starting 152 

Priming  cup   (Crossley)  .  .  148 

Processes  in  cylinder 59 

Producer  gas  plant 20 

Products  of  combustion. .  .    18 

Pump,  oil-supply 49 

Pump,   water-circulating.  .  99 

Pumping  plants 131 

Pumps,  efficiency  of 133 

Pumps,     horse-power     re- 
quired  132 

REFRIGERATING  machines.  ..133 
Refrigerating        machines, 

horse-power  required..  136 
Refrigerating        machines, 

rating  of 133 

Regulation  of  engines 117 

Reversing  direction  of  ro- 
tation  154 

Rhumkorft"  coil 5 

Rings,  junk 55 

Rings,  piston, 

34,  55,  56,  154,  158,  159 
Running  oil  engines 139 

SALT  WATER,  cooling 100 

Self-starter 105 

Self-starter  (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 105 

Silencers,  exhaust 100 

Simplicity  of  construction.   21 

Single   cycle 16 

Skew  gear 43 

Specific  gravity I 


INDEX. 


195 


PAGE 

Speed  counter  (Hill) 85 

Speed,  regulation  of 154 

Sprayer   (Priestman) 13 

Spray  holes 147 

Spur  gear 43,  160 

Starting '. 1 1 

Starting  (Campbell  type). .150 
Starting  (Crossley  type)  .  .148 
Starting  (Diesel  motor)..  177 
Starting,  difficulties  of.6i,  .143 

Starting  gear 21 

Starting         (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 142 

Starting  (Priestman  type).  152 

Starting  valve 179 

Straight  line  principle. . .  .168 
Suction  line 76 

TACHOMETERS 83 

Tachometers,  portable 84 

Tank 49 

Tank,    fuel  consumption.  .  64 

Tank,  water 141 

Temperature     of     cooling 

water. 81,  100 

Temperature,    exhaust . .  . .  1 10 

Testing  compression 61 

Testing   flash-point 90 

Testing  fuel  consumption.  87 

Testing  new  engine'. 59 

Testing,  object  of 59 

Testing  oil-pump 147 

Testing   sprayer 61 

Testing  water-jackets 63 

Thermal  efficiency. . .  .86,  180 
Two-cycle  system..  15,  44,  170 


PAGE 
Two-cylinder  engines 51 

VALVE,  air  and  exhaust, 

39,  57,  145,  158,  177 

Valve,  back  pressure 146 

Valve  by-pass 45,  173 

Valve  closing-springs 39 

Valve  exhaust  opening. ...  60 

Valve,  lift  of 78 

Valve  mechanisms 43 

Valve,  overflow,  oil 146 

Valve  starting 179 

Valves 21,  41 

Valves  and  valve-boxes...  38 
Vapor  inlet-valve.  .11,  12,  150 
Vaporizer,  advantages  of . .  8 

Vaporizer  (Campbell) 5 

Vaporizer  (Crossley)  .  .11,  150 
Vaporizer,  difficulties  of.  .     9 
Vaporizer    heated    by    ex- 
haust    14 

Vaporizer,  heating. . .  .61,  152 
Vaporizer  (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd) 9 

Vaporizer   (Priestman)...    13 

Vaporizer 7 

Vaporizer,   to   heat 141 

Vaporizer  valve-box 145 

Vaporizer,   water-jacketed.  141 

Vertical  engines 51 

Vibrator 6 

Viscosity  of  oil 93 

WASHER,    exhaust 101 

Waste  heat,  utilization  of. .107 
Water-circulating  pipes...  97 


196 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Water-circulating  pump. . .  99 

Water  cooling 183 

Water  draining 104 

Water  in  exhaust-pipe 104 

Water-jackets 57,  180 


PAGE 

Water,  salt,  cooling 100 

Water    space 23 

Water-tanks,  capacity  of . .  96 
Water-tanks,  cooling.  .96,  141 
Worm-gear 43,  160 


LUNKENHEIMER    OlL-MlXER    OR    GENERATOR     VALVE. 

This  oil-feeder,  applicable  alike  to  both  kerosene  and 
gasoline,  is  quite  simple  and  readily  attached  to  engine. 
It  is  automatic,  and  feeds  the  oil  in  a  thoroughly  atom- 
ized state,  but  does  not  "heat  same  to  the  vaporizing 
point.  If  the  engine  is  to  operate  with  gasoline,  warm- 
ing the  in-coming  air  is  advisable. 

If  kerosene  or  heavy  oils  are  used,  the  mixer  should 
be  arranged  so  that  the  fresh  air  drawn  in  through 
opening  C  (see  cuts)  opens  disc  E.  This  allows  oil  to 
flow  in  through  passage  K,  where,  meeting  the  rapidly 
entering  air,  it  is  thoroughly  broken  up  into  a  spray,, 
and  passing  on  enters  the  heater  or  vaporizer,  and  from 
thence  to  cylinder. 


Disc  E  is  closed  by  spring  M,  the  seat  being  very 
wide,  it  covers  passage-way  K,  automatically  shutting 
off  the  oil. 

The  regulation  is  adjusted  by  means  of  the  needle- 
valve  F  and  pointer  G. 

The  mixer,  while  one  of  the  newest,  seems  to  em- 
body every  requirement  of  a  device  for  this  purpose, 
and  could  no  doubt  be  profitably  employed  by  many 
more  builders  of  engines  of  this  class. 


e  Lunkenheimer  Co. 


General  Offices  and  Factory 
CINCINNATI,  O.,  U.  S.  A. 

BRANCHES 

New  York  London 

26  Cortlandt  St.        35  Great  Dover  St. 

MANUFACTURE  A  COMPLETE  LINE  OF 

ACCESSORIES 

FOR 

Oil  Engines 

Generator  Valves 

Globe  Angle  and  Cross, 

Stop  and  Needle  Valves 

Check  Valves 

Stop  Cocks 

Water  and  Oil  Gauges 

Cylinder  Lubricators 

Drain  Cocks 

Special  Fittings 

Bearing  Oilers,  Single  or 

Multiple 
Grease  Cups,  etc. 

Special  Fittings  made  to  order  for 
Engine  Builders. 

Sena  for  Complete  Catalogue 


Lubrication 


Proper  lubrication  is  one  of  the  most  vital  points  in 
the  operation  of  any  piece  of  machinery,  and  particu- 
larly so  with  the  Gas  or  Oil  Engine.  There  are  special 
requirements  to  be  considered,  and  too  much  care 
cannot  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  an  oil  to  meet 
them.  An  oil  which  has  been  adapted  and  found  sat- 
isfactory for  other  kinds  of  engines  may  not  be  at  all 
suited  for  the  Oil  Engine. 

The  action  of  heat  on  the  lubricating  oil  must  be 
taken  into  consideration,  and  the  burning  point  of  the 
oil  be  high  enough  to  withstand  the  heat  generated 
under  the  highest  speed.  The  viscosity  should  be  such 
that  so  great  a  reduction  will  not  take  place  under  heat 
as  to  impair  the  lubrication.  Inasmuch  as  most  animal 
oils  contain  matter  which  liberates  injurious  acids  under 
the  action  of  heat,  it  is  essential  that  compounded  oils 
be  avoided  as  dangerous. 

The  Columbia  Lubricants  Company  have  made  a 
special  study  of  the  requirements  of  the  Gas  and  Oil 
Engines  and  have  been  able  to  meet  them  in  every 
detail.  They  have  prepared  a  special  oil  which  among 
other  essential  tests  has  a  burning  point  of  525  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  use  of  this  oil  will  insure  perfect 
lubrication  under  all  conditions  and  an  economy  in  the 
amount  used. 

For  further  information  on  this  and  other  specially 
adapted  oils,  we  invite  correspondence. 


Columbia  Lubricants  Company 

121  Maiden  Lane  -  '       ,  •,--"'        &(ew>  York  City 


OVER  SIX  THOUSAND 
IN  ACTUAL  OPERATION 

SIZES: 
2  TO  50  BRAKE  H.  P. 

USED  BY  THE 
UNITED  STATES, 
BRITISH,  AND 
SEVEN 
OTHER 
GOVERN- 
MENTS 


NO 

ELECTRIC 
SPARK 

NO  TUBE 
IGNITION 


ALWAYS  SAFE 
AND  RELIABLE 

STARTS  WITH- 
OUT DIFFICULTY 

WORKS 
AUTOMATICALLY 

Sole  ^Manufacturers  in  the  United  States 

The  De  La  Vergne  Refrigerating  Machine  Co., 

Foot  East  /38th  Street,  Ne<w  York. 


Ice  and  Refrigeration 

ILLUSTRATED 

A  Monthly  Review  of  the  Ice,  Ice  Making,  Refrigerating, 
Cold  Storage  and  kindred  trades     ««««««« 


SUBSCRIPTION  PRICE  : 

In    United    States,  Canada    and   Mexico,   $2.00  per   year ;    in   all  other 
countries,  $3.00  per  year. 


ICE  AND  REFRIGERATION  is  the  only  journal  in  the  world 
which  furnishes  a  complete  and  reliable  record  of  the  scientific,  experi- 
mental and  practical  progress  made  in  the  manufacture  of  ice,  as  well  as 
a  thorough  exposition  of  the  various  methods  adopted  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  to  produce  low  temperatures  for  preserving  perishable  goods  in 
store.  The  paper  is  superbly  illustrated  with  views  of  new  ice  making, 
cold  storage  and  refrigerating  plants,  together  with  detailed  drawings  for 
the  construction  of  same,  engravings  of  new  and  patented  appliances,  etc. 

H.  S.  RICH  &  CO.,  Publishers 
206  Broadway,  New  York  177  La  Salic  St.,  Chicago 


Also  publishers  of  the  following  standard  books  on  ice  making,  cold  storage 
and  refrigeration,  which  will  be  sent  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price. 

Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration 

By  Prof.  J.  E.  SIEBEL.     Price,  prepaid,  Cloth,  $3.00 ;  Morocco,  $3.50. 
Third  Edition.     The  only  work  treating  of  all  the  various  branches  of  theoreti- 
cal and  applied  refrigeration,  and   will   be   found  to   contain  a  large  amount  of 
information  which  would  be  looked  for  in  vain  elsewhere. 

Machinery  for  Refrigeration 

By   NORMAN   SELFE.     Price,   prepaid,    Cloth,   $3.50;    Morocco,    $4.50. 
To  the  ice  or  cold  storage  man  who  wants. to  produce  the  best  results  with  the 
least  primary  investment  of  capital,  the  smallest  cost  of  maintenance  and  the  lowest 
working  expenses,  this  work  will  prove  of  great  value. 

Practical  Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 

By  EUGENE  T.  SKINKLE.     Price,  prepaid,  Cloth,  $1.50  ;  Morocco,  $2.00. 
Every  branch    of    ice    making  and    refrigerating    is    handled  in    this   work, 
with  a  view  of  setting  out  the  best  and  most  economical  practice  in  the  construction 
and  operation  of  the  plant. 

Indicating  the  Refrigerating  Machine 

By  GARDNER  T.  VOORHEES.  Price,  prepaid,  Cloth,  $1.00;  Morocco,  $1.50. 
Treats   of   the  application  of  the  indicator  to  the  ammonia  compressor  and 
steam  engine,  with  practical  instructions  relating  to  the  construction  and  use  of 
the  indicator  and  reading  and  computing  indicator  cards. 


HAVE  YOU  TRIED    LAVA 


Insulating  Washers,  etc. 


for  ELECTRIC  IGNITION 


D.  M.  STEWARD  MFG.  CO. 


107  Chambers  St. 
New  York 


Chattanooga 

Tenn.,  U.  S.  A. 


A  machine  is  only  as  strong  as   its   weakest  part 

An  explosive  engine  is  reliable  only  so  far  as 
the  positive  ignition  at  the  proper  time  of  the 
charge  is  assured. 


The  H.  C. 
Magneto  Igniter 


IS  THE  BEST  DEVICE  FOR  THIS 
WORK  ON  THE  MARKET 


Send  for  bulletin  giving  full 
description.  Special  design  for 
automobiles  and  launches. 


We  make  a  full  line  of  "up-to-date"  electrical  machinery 
for  all  purposes,  and  will  be  pleased  to  send  descriptive 
matter  to  those  interested. 


The  Holtzer-Cabot  Electric  Co. 

BROOKLINE,  MASS. 


A  Large  Number  of 

c  &  c 

Dynamos 

are  in  constant  and  satisfac- 
tory use  in  connection  with 
oilengines.  If  you  want  the 
Most  Efficient  Dynamo  built, 
either  for  belting  or  direct- 
connecting,  address 


C  &  C  Electric  Company 


SALES  DEPARTMENT 
143  Liberty  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Or,  C.  R.  HEAP,  47  Victoria  St.,  Westminster,  London,  Eng. 


THE  PRIESTMAN 


Safety  Oil  Engine 

Three  acknowledged  requisites  of 
an  ideal  internal-combus- 
tion engine — 

Straight-Line  Design 

Jump-Spark  Ignition 

Graduated -Charge  Regulation 

WE  STARTED-OTHERS  FOLLOW 

PRIESTMAN  &  CO.,  INC. 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


The  AMERICAN  THOMPSON 
inPROVED  INDICATOR 

is  especially  adapted  for  use  on  Oil, 
Gas  and  Gasolene  Engines.  It  is  made 
with  small  \%  in.  drum  and  extra  %  in. 
area  piston,  making  it  suitable  for  the 
high  speed  and  high  pressure.  The 
most  Simple,  Accurate  and  Durable  In- 
dicator ever  Produced. 

Send  for  Illustrated  Catalogue. 

MANUFACTURED  ONLY  BY 

AMERICAN  STEAM  GAUGE  CO. 

JAMAICA  PLAIN,       BOSTON,  flASS; 


AIR  COMPRESSORS 


Driven  by  Belt,  Rope,  or  connected  directly 
with  Oil  Engines 


Light 
Transpor- 
tation 


Economy 

of 

Power 


I  No 
Boilers 


Economy 

of 

Space 


The  OIL  ENGINE,  through  its  economies,  opens  up  great  possi- 
bilities in  the  use  of  Compressed  Air  Power.  "    * 


The 


INGERSOLL-SERGEANT 

26  CORTLANDT  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


DRILL 
COflPANY 


TtowEuTsO  PATENT 
§|GHAt 


We  make  a  specialty  of 

and 

Gasolene 
Engine 

Furnishings 

viz. : 
Cylinder 

Lubricators, 

Both  Glass  and  Brass, 

Crank  Pin  Oilers,  Slide  Oilers,   Indi- 
cator Cocks,  Relief  Cocks,  etc.— AH  of 

genuine   merit   and   fully   warranted.     Send   for  our 
catalogue. 

THE  WM.  POWELL  CO. 

CINCINNATI,  OHIO 


The  E.  G.  Bernard  Company,  Troy,  N.  Y. 

Makers  of  High  Grade  Specially  Balanced  Oil  and  Gas  Engine  Dynamos 

Write  for  circular,  prices,  etc. 


ROTH  DYNAMOS 


FOR 

PRIVATE    OR    ISOLATED 
LIGHTING  PLANTS 


In  sizes  of  15,  25,  30,  50,  So  and  1 10 

Light  Capacity,  16  C.  P. 

Small  first-class  Dynamos  a  Spe- 
cialty.   Fully  Guaranteed 


Send  for  Descriptive  Bulletin, 

ROTH  BROS.  &  CO. 

98  West  Jackson  Boulevard,  Chicago,  111. 


NEW  STANDARD 

Oil,  Gas  and  Gasolene 
Engine  Outfit 

CONSISTING   OF 

New  Standard  "Autogas"  Dry 

Battery  .  .  .  .  .  $5.00 

New  Standard  Jump  Spark  Coil.    12.00 

New  Standard  Insulated  Cam- 
Contact  Key  .  .  .  ..3-5° 

New  Standard  Double  Porcelain 

Insulated  Ignition  Plug  .  6.00 


If  you    are  interested,  write  for  de.- 
scriptive  pamphlet. 

WILLIAM  ROGHE 

Inventor  anil  Sole  Mfr. 
42  Vesey  Street    -    New  York  City 


We  also  manufacture  other  good  and 
useful  appliances  to  be  operated  with 
dry  cells. 


JUflP  SPARK  COILS 


For 

Igniting 
the  Charge 
in  Cylin- 
ders of  Gas, 
Gasolene 
or  Oil 
Engines. 
9 

Simple,  Dur 
able  and 
Reliable. 

* 


C.  F.  SPLITDORF,  3S&&&.  17  Yandeiater  St.,  New  York. 


MIETZ&WEISS 
L    GAS  OR 
'KEROSENE 
ENGINE 


Automatic,  Simple  and   Reliable 
ind  Cheapest  Power 
Known 

From  1  to  40  H.  P.          S^n^  fnr  r**-i „ 


A.  MIETZ 

128-138  Mott  St.  New  York 

MARKT  &  CO..   LTD.. 


IRIS,    HAMBURG   AND    BERLIN. 


USEFUL   BOOKS 

WATSON — How  to  Run  Engines  and  Boilers,       -         -         $1.00 
REDWOOD— Theoretical  and  Practical  Ammonia  Refrig- 
eration, -        -        -  .       -.          i.oo 
REDWOOD — Lubricants,  Oils  and  Greases,  -         -  1.50 
DAHLSTROM— The   Fireman's  Guide  to  Care  of  Steam 

Boilers, .50 

HENTHORN — Care  and  Management  of  Corliss  Engines,     i.oo 
HIGGS— Algebra  Self  Taught  for  Engineers,        -         -  .60 

MARSHALL — Small   Accumulators    and    How   to   Make 

Them,     -      •  *     .  -        .„  *  .    -     -  -         -  .50 

Hooks  mailed  postpaid  on  receipt  of  price. 

SF»ON   &  CHAMBERLvAIN 

12  Cortlandt  Street,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 


The  P.  T.  Motor  Company 

P.  T.  Motors  will  run  on  the  vapors  of  any 
of  the  products  of  petroleum. 

Complete  Motors^ 
Castings  and  Parts 

Send  stamp  for  circulars. 

Our  motors  are  the  smallest  and  lightest  per 
horse  power  in  the  world.  Our  i  H.  P.  Bi- 
cycle Motor  is  only  12^  x  6x4  inches;  weight, 
-°/4  pounds  ;  speed,  1000  R.  per  minute. 

Address  all  communications  to 

2312  Broadway,  or  230  Avenue  B 
New  York  City 

Hill's  Speed  Recorder 

REGISTERS  TIME 

and 

REVOLUTIONS 


PAPER  TAPE 

Accurate  and  Reliable 

Size,  4^  x  zy,  x  1%  inches 

ALVA   T.   HILL 

432  4th  Ave.,  -  -  Detroit,  niCHIGAN 


"B  &  0"  FACTION  CLUTCH  PULLEY 

SPECIALLY  DESIGNED  FOR 

GAS,  GASOLENE  AND  OIL  ENGINES 

»  (PATENTED) 

Bolts  directly  on  engine  fly  wheel. 
A  powerful  grip,  combined  with  a  positive  release. 
A  simple  merhanism  enclosed  in  a  dust-proof  case. 
The  greatest  ease  of  operation  and  adjustment. 
MADE  BY 

WHITMAN  MFG.  CO. 

39  Cortlandt  Street        -        New  York 

Also  manufacturers  of  the  B   &  C  Line  Shaft  Clutches, 

and  Clutch  Couplings.  "B  &  C"  Gas  Engine 

Write  for  Catalogue  and  Prices.  Clutch  Pulley 


CROSS  SECTION  PAPER. 

Scale  BIGHT  to  ONE  Inch. 

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ness with  useful  tables.  Size  8  x  10  inches.  Price,  250.  each.  Per 
dozen  pads,  $2.50. 

THE   HANDY   SKETCHING   BOOK. 

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Scale  BIGHT  to  OPtB  Incli 

A  large  sheet  with  heavy  inch  lines  and  half  inch  lines,  printed  in 
blue  ink.     Size  of  sheet,  17x22  inches.     Per  quire  (24  sheets),  750. 


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Size  17  x  22  inches,  printed  in  blue  ink,  with  heavy  inch  lines  and 
half  inch  lines.     Per  quire  (24  sheets),  750. 

The  Electrician's  Sketching  Book. 

Made  from  this  paper.   Scale  ro  to  i  inch.    Size  of  book  5x8  inches, 
with  stiff  card  board  covers.     Price,  250.  each;  per  dozen,  $2.50. 

The  Electrician's  Plotting  Pad, 

Same  paper,  only  printed  on  one  side,  size  of  pad,   8  x  10  inches, 
250  ;  per  dozen,  $2  50. 

Any  Books  and  Pads  Assorted,  per  dozen,  $2  50. 

ANY  QUANTITY  MAILED  TO  ANY  PART  OF  THE  WORLD 
POST-PAID  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE. 

This  paper  is  Printed  from  plates.    Try  it  and  you  will  find  it 
QOOD,  ACCURATE}  AND   CHEAP. 


SPON  &  CHAMBERLAIN, 

12  CORTLANDT  STREET.        NEW  YORK,  U.  S.  A. 


AUTHORIZED  AflERICAN  EDITION  OF 

POLYPHASE 

ELECTRIC  CURRENTS 


AND 


ALTERNATE-CURRENT  MOTORS 

By  S.  P.  THOMPSON,  D.Sc.,  B.A.,  F.E.S. 

Second  and  Enlarged  Edition,  with  Twenty-four  Colored  Illus 
trations  and  Eight  Folding  Plates. 


CONTENTS  OF  CHAPTERS. 
I.    Alternating  Currents  in  General. 
II.     Polyphase  Currents. 

III.  Combination  of  Polyphase  Circuits  and  Economy  of  Copper. 

IV.  Polyphase  Generators. 

V.     Examples  of  Polyphase  Generators. 
VI.     Structure  of  Polyphase  Motors. 
VII-VIII.    Graphic  Theory  of  Polyphase  Motors. 
IX.     Analytical  Theory  of  Polyphase  Motors. 
X.     Examples  of  Modern  Polyphase  Motors. 
XI.     Hints  on  Design. 
XII.     Mechanical  Performance  of  Polyphase  Motors. 

XIII.  Single-Phase  Motors. 

XIV.  Polyphase  Transformers  and  Phase  Transformation. 
XV.     Measurement  of  Polyphase  Power. 

XVI.     Polyphase  Equipment  of  Factories. 

XVII.     Distribution  of  Polyphase  Currents  from  Central  Stations. 
XVI II.     Polyphase  Electric  Railways. 

XIX.     Properties  of  Rotating  Magnetic  Fields. 
XX.     Early  Development  of  the  Polyphase  Motor. 

APPENDIX.— I.  Alternate  Current  Calculations  :  the  Symbolic  Me- 
thod. II.  Schedule  of  Polyphase  Patents.  Index  LIST  OF  PLATES: — 
I.  Two-phase  Generator  at  Chevres.  II.  Three  phase  Inductor 
Alternator.  III.  Two-phase  Motor  of  Six  Horse-power.  IV.  Three- 
phase  Motor  of  One  Hundred  Horse-power.  V.  Three-phase  Motor 
of  Twenty  Horse-power.  VI.  Core-Disks  of  Three-Phase  Motor. 
VII.  Two  phase  Motor  of  One  Thousand  Horse  power.  VIII.  Lo- 
comotive of  the  Jungfrau  Railway. 

508   I  "ages,  358  Illus.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $5.00+ 


THEIR    CONSTRUCTION,  OPERATION    AND    APPLICATIONS,    WITH 
CHAPTERS,    ON 

Batteries,  Tesla  Goils  and  Roentgen  Radiograph 
By  H.  S.  NORRIE. 

CONTENTS  OF  CHAPTERS. 

Chapter  I.  —  Coil  Construction.  II.—  Contact  Breakers.  III.  —  In- 
sulations and  Cements.  IV.  —  Condensers.  V.  —  Experiments  VI.— 
Spectrum  Analysis.  VII.—  Currents  in  Vacuo.  VIII.  —  Rotating  Ef- 
fects. IX.  —  Gas  Lighting  and  Ozone  Production.  X.  —  Primary  Bat- 
teries and  Electric  Light  Currents.  XI.  —  Storage  Batteries.  XII.— 
Tesla  and  Hertz  Effects.  XIII.—  Roentgen  Rays  and  Radiography. 
With  57  new  illustrations. 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Win 
Second 

Winder,  End  View.  8.  Section  Winder,  Face  View.  9.  Assembly 
of  Coils.  10.  Polechanging  Switch  ir.  Contact  Breaker,  Simple. 
12.  Contact  Breaker,  Imperfect  Form.  13.  Contact  Breaker, 
Superior  Form.  14.  Spottiswoode  Breaker.  15.  Polechanging.  16. 
Ley  den  Jar.  17.  Plate  Condenser.  18.  Arrangement  of  Condenser 
Plates.  19.  Condenser  Charging,  First  Method.  20.  .Condenser 
Charging.  Second  Method.  21.  Spark  between  Balls.  22  Short 
Spark  between  Balls.  23.  Sparkling  Pane.  24.  Luminous  Design. 
25.  Electric  Brush.  26.  Spectrum  —  Solar.  27.  Spectroscope  and  Coil. 
28  Simple  Air  Pump.  29.  Geissler  Air  Pump.  30.  Sprengel  Air 
Pump.  31.  Fluorescent  Bulbs.  32.  Solution  Tube.  33.  Ruby 
Tube—  Crookes.  34.  Iridio-platinum  Tube  —  Crookes.  35.  Revolving 
Wheel.  36.  Tube  Holder.  37.  Side  View  of  Wheel.  38.  Geissler 
Tubes.  39.  Triangle  on  Disc.  40.  Maltese  Cross  on  Disc.  41. 
Gas  Lighting  Circuit.  42.  Ozone.  43.  Grenet  Cell  44.  Fuller 
15.  Gethin's  Cell.  46.  Lead  Plate.  47.  Wooden  Separator.  48 
Charging  with  Rheostat.  49.  Charging  with  Lamps.  50.  Hydro- 
meter. 51.  Hertz  Resonator.  52.  Tesla  Circuit.  53.  Tesla  Cut 
Out.  54.  Tesla  Cut  Out  Top  Plan.  55.  Tesla  Coil.  56  Crookes 
Tube.  57.  Roentgen  Circuit. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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expiration  of  loan  period. 


FEB231920 


DEC  16  V£- 


